Music & spoken language share many features by combining smaller units (e.g., words, notes) into larger structures (e.g., sentences, musical phrases). This hierarchical organization of sound is culturally contingent & communicates meaning to listeners. Comparisons of music & language from a cognitive neuroscience perspective provide several insights into commonalities & differences between these systems, how they are represented in the brain. The cognitive neuroscience research of music & language, emphasizes the pitfalls & promises identified, including (1) the apparent acoustic & structural similarities between these systems, (2) how both systems convey meaning to listeners, (3) how these systems are learned over the course of development, & (4) the ways in which experience in one domain influences processing in the other domain. We conclude that searching for similarities in how these complex systems are structured (e.g., comparing musical syntax to linguistic syntax) represents a pitfall that researchers should approach with caution. A promising approach in this area of research is to examine how general cognitive mechanisms underlie the learning & maintenance of both systems

Anticipatory processes can influence how quickly comprehenders can process novel linguistic input and how they learn from linguistic surprises. This chapter outlines experimental evidence establishing the psychological reality of anticipatory processes and sketches some contemporary accounts that explain how comprehenders generate predictions from linguistic input. Accounts like Pickering & Gambi’s (2018) formulation suggest that comprehenders covertly engage language production mechanisms to generate predictions about future input and to know when it is time to stop processing current input. Kuperberg and colleagues’ (2021, 2023) formulation lays out a multi-layered network that produces predictions for several different types of linguistic and semantic information (phonological/orthographic, syntactic, lexical, event). N-gram accounts (Brennan, 2020; Hale, 2003, 2016) focus on word predictions and include formal metrics of entropy and surprisal derived from information-theoretic frameworks like Shallice’s. On this account, comprehenders store in long-term memory strings of words (N-grams) and these stored patterns serve as the basis for calculating entropy (how many different continuations are possible at a given point) and surprisal (how likely is a specific word in a specific context). We present a variety of evidence indicating that n-grams may not be the sole or main basis for predictions.

Since the late 1990s, thousands of fMRI studies have been conducted on different aspects of language processing in the human brain. The earlier studies were generally devoted to first language or monolingual processing, but the field has continued to expand to include both studies of a single first language, and bi/multilingual language processing in the brain. A modest number of fMRI longitudinal studies of second language acquisition began to emerge over the past 13 years. The following analysis uses the findings of these BOLD fMRI longitudinal studies of second language acquisition, including comparison with cross-sectional studies of L2 acquisition, to make recommendations for enhancing the research design and empirical measurements to facilitate new methodologies and approaches. Conclusions include a discussion of the utility of longitudinal studies, elucidation of the theoretical foundation of dynamic modeling underlying individual user variation in L1/L2 language processing, inclusion of a broader array of imaging techniques (structural DTI, resting state fMRI and functional connectivity), and the importance of proficiency measurements and proficiency testing as a part of research design.

The emergence of robust accessibility to functional neuroimaging in the late 1990s and early 2000s provided a new way to study language processing in the human brain, the most common techniques being PET and fMRI studies. Prior to this moment, neural language mappings were tied to invasive procedures in surgery and pathology, where CSM (cortical stimulation mapping) was one of the primary sources of data. Reframing approaches to understanding language processing in the brain allowed for closer ties between the cognitive neurosciences and linguistic theory, as well as new perspectives of multimodalities, resting state functional connectivity, and embodied cognition. Here we explore the range of outcomes in functional and structural neuroimaging studies focusing on language processing in the brain, including studies of bi- and multilingualism. The chapter concludes with a discussion of some of the central challenges in neuroimaging studies of language(s), including software and inter-method discrepancies, protocol design, proficiency measurements, and ecological validity.

Language and other cognitive abilities interact with each other in a complex fashion. This interaction affects how we understand and develop models of cognitive function, interpret data reflecting neural activation and connectivity, and diagnose and treat language and cognitive conditions. The goal of this chapter is to provide a cohesive narrative introduction to major cognitive processes and some of the ways in which they interact with language processing. The chapter addresses four key non-linguistic cognitive processes: attention, memory, working memory, and executive function. Each process is discussed in terms of current thinking and prominent models regarding how it functions, its neural substrates, and how it affects and is affected by language function. While the cognitive processes discussed are presented separately, they share underlying relationships, and some models of cognition conceptualize the divisions between constructs differently. This chapter offers a clear but somewhat simplified overview in the interest of providing a basis for conceptualizing the interactive nature of language and other cognitive skills.

This chapter explores the role of functional connectivity (FC), as measured by FMRI, in the neural processes involved in the recovery from aphasia following left hemisphere strokes. It distinguishes between normalization (restoration of typical connectivity patterns) and compensation (reorganization and recruitment of new regions and connections). The chapter organization is based on two methodological dimensions. One is the type of connectivity measured: resting-state vs. task-based FC. The second is the study design: a single time-point scan, examining the correlation between connectivity and language performance across individuals; or a pre/post-treatment design, examining changes in connectivity within participants. While the results of many studies show that normalization of left hemisphere connectivity contributes to language performance, there is also evidence for compensatory processes in both hemispheres and in interhemispheric connectivity, as involved in language recovery. The chapter also highlights the role of connectivity with domain general networks in aphasia studies, beyond the language network. Studies measuring large scale networks show mixed evidence regarding the contribution of integration across networks vs. segregation and specialization of networks to language recovery. The chapter emphasizes the importance of considering factors like patient heterogeneity, lesion characteristics, and the type of FC analysis when interpreting results.

This chapter reviews the current state of knowledge with regards to language control in bilingual aphasia. First, an overview of bilingual language processing and language control in healthy bilinguals is provided. Then, language impairment and recovery patterns in bilingual aphasia are discussed and the influence of language control and linguistic similarity are highlighted. Next, the relationship between bilingual language control and cognitive control is reviewed with attention given to the potential overlap between linguistic and nonlinguistic control mechanisms. Then, case studies and experiments that specifically examine linguistic and nonlinguistic control processes in bilingual aphasia are discussed, focusing on a variety of tasks and methodologies used to examine these processes. Finally, the chapter is concluded by discussing the role of language control in treatment and, specifically, its role in cross-language generalization.

In this chapter, we review what is known about the neural bases of language in, autism spectrum disorder (ASD), focusing on structural and functional investigations in studies of infants, children, and adults. While language impairment is not a core symptom of ASD, most children show significant delays and many continue to experience significant deficits. First, we summarize the range of methods used to investigate brain structure and function in ASD and the challenges in conducting neuroimaging research with this population. Then we survey the research on children and adults to highlight some of the major findings that characterize the neural underpinnings of language in ASD. Since ASD is a neurodevelopmental disorder, there is growing interest in understanding the developmental origins of heterogeneous language profiles. Thus, we then provide a detailed review of this literature, which highlights the very early emergence of atypical neural structure and function in ASD. We end by drawing some tentative conclusions and identifying gaps in the literature that point to future directions for research on language in ASD.

For centuries, scientists have pondered how humans translate thought into language and where language processes occur in the brain. This chapter focuses on modern advances in both psycholinguistics (the field focused on specifying the psychological processes that mediate language behaviors) and neurolinguistics (the field focused on determining the neural correlates of linguistic skills), with a heavier emphasis on the latter, due to the recent tendency to combine psycholinguistic and neurolinguistic aspects into a single model. Given that both psycholinguistics and neurolinguistics have roots in work started by aphasiologists in the mid 19th century, the chapter begins with a historical overview of the neurobiology of language and aphasia before turning to developments in these fields within the last 20 years. The review centers on contemporary neurolinguistic and psycholinguistic models of semantics, phonology, and syntax and the corresponding evidence for these models drawn primarily from studies of neurologically healthy adults and individuals with aphasia.

Advances in healthcare have significantly increased global life expectancy, but this progress comes with societal and individual costs, notably a rise in age-related diseases like dementia. Given the limited availability of pharmacological solutions for cognitive aging, the scientific community is exploring healthy life experiences that can mitigate aging by enhancing reserve—the ability to withstand neural damage and maintain cognitive function. This chapter reviews neuroscientific evidence for one such experience: bilingualism. Managing multiple languages can enhance executive functions such as attention, task-switching, and working memory, contributing to greater reserve. Studies show that bilingual individuals often experience a delayed onset of dementia symptoms compared to monolinguals, suggesting a protective effect on neurocognitive health. We explore the relationship between bilingualism and different sub-mechanisms of reserve, with a particular focus on neuroimaging studies.

We propose an account of neural mechanisms underlying the beneficial effects of bilingualism on aging. By combining different theoretical models, we argue that the neuroprotective effects result from bilingualism-induced neuroplastic changes, consistent with the reserve model. Finally, we discuss the broader socio-economic implications of these findings, emphasizing the importance of understanding connections between bilingualism and reserve development.

The study of individuals with hippocampal damage and amnesia provides a compelling opportunity to directly test the role of declarative memory to communication and language. Over the past two decades, we have documented disruptions in discourse and conversation as well as in more basic aspects of language in individuals with hippocampal amnesia including at the word, phrase, and sentence level across offline and online language processing tasks. This work highlights the critical contribution of hippocampal-dependent memory to language and communication and suggests that hippocampal damage or dysfunction is a risk factor for a range of language and communicative disruptions even in the absence of frank disorders of amnesia or aphasia. This work also raises questions about the reality and utility of the historical distinction between communication and language in defining cognitive-communication disorders as individuals with isolated memory impairments show deficits that cut across both communication and language.

Music is among the most important factors of the human experience. It draws on core perceptual-cognitive functions including those most relevant to speech-language processing. Consequently, musicians have been a model for understanding neuroplasticity and its far-reaching transfer effects to perception, action, cognition, and linguistic brain functions. This chapter provides an overview of these perceptual-cognitive benefits that music exerts on the brain with specific reference to spillover effects it has on speech and language functions. We highlight cross-sectional and longitudinal findings on music’s impact on the linguistic brain ranging from psychophysical benefits to enhancements of higher-order cognition. We also emphasize commonalities and distinctions in brain plasticity afforded by experience in the speech and music domains, drawing special attention to cross-domain transfer effects (or lack thereof) in how musical training influences linguistic processing and vice versa.