Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-68c7f8b79f-gx2m9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-12-19T00:36:41.868Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

2 - Neuroimaging of Cognitive Reserve in Bilinguals

from Part II - Neuroimaging Studies of Brain and Language

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 December 2025

By
Federico Gallo  and
Jubin Abutalebi
Edited by
Edna Andrews  and
Swathi Kiran
Edna Andrews
Affiliation:
Duke University, North Carolina
Swathi Kiran
Affiliation:
Boston University
Get access

Summary

Advances in healthcare have significantly increased global life expectancy, but this progress comes with societal and individual costs, notably a rise in age-related diseases like dementia. Given the limited availability of pharmacological solutions for cognitive aging, the scientific community is exploring healthy life experiences that can mitigate aging by enhancing reserve—the ability to withstand neural damage and maintain cognitive function. This chapter reviews neuroscientific evidence for one such experience: bilingualism. Managing multiple languages can enhance executive functions such as attention, task-switching, and working memory, contributing to greater reserve. Studies show that bilingual individuals often experience a delayed onset of dementia symptoms compared to monolinguals, suggesting a protective effect on neurocognitive health. We explore the relationship between bilingualism and different sub-mechanisms of reserve, with a particular focus on neuroimaging studies.

We propose an account of neural mechanisms underlying the beneficial effects of bilingualism on aging. By combining different theoretical models, we argue that the neuroprotective effects result from bilingualism-induced neuroplastic changes, consistent with the reserve model. Finally, we discuss the broader socio-economic implications of these findings, emphasizing the importance of understanding connections between bilingualism and reserve development.

Keywords

BilingualismCognitive AgingNeuroimagingCognitive ReserveExecutive FunctioningAlzheimer’s Dementia.

Information

Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of Language and Brain , pp. 13 - 46
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2025

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Book purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Abutalebi, J., Canini, M., Della Rosa, P. A., Green, D. W., & Weekes, B. S. (2015). The neuroprotective effects of bilingualism upon the inferior parietal lobule: A structural neuroimaging study in aging Chinese bilinguals. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 33, 3–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroling.2014.09.008CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Abutalebi, J., Canini, M., Della Rosa, P. A., Sheung, L. P., Green, D. W., & Weekes, B. S. (2014). Bilingualism protects anterior temporal lobe integrity in aging. Neurobiology of Aging, 35(9), 2126–2133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2014.03.010CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Abutalebi, J., Della Rosa, P. A., Castro Gonzaga, A. K., Keim, R., Costa, A., & Perani, D. (2013). The role of the left putamen in multilingual language production. Brain and Language, 125(3), 307–315. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2012.03.009CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Abutalebi, J., Della Rosa, P. A., Green, D. W., Hernandez, M., Scifo, P., Keim, R., Cappa, S. F., & Costa, A. (2012). Bilingualism tunes the anterior cingulate cortex for conflict monitoring. Cerebral Cortex, 22(9), 2076–2086. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhr287CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Abutalebi, J., & Green, D. (2007). Bilingual language production: The neurocognition of language representation and control. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 20(3), 242–275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroling.2006.10.003CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Abutalebi, J., & Green, D. W. (2016). Neuroimaging of language control in bilinguals: Neural adaptation and reserve. Bilingualism, 19(4), 689–698. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728916000225CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Abutalebi, J., Guidi, L., Borsa, V., Canini, M., Della Rosa, P. A., Parris, B. A., & Weekes, B. S. (2015). Bilingualism provides a neural reserve for aging populations. Neuropsychologia, 69, 201–210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2015.01.040CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alladi, S., Bak, T. H., Duggirala, V., Surampudi, B., Shailaja, M., Shukla, A. K., Chaudhuri, J. R., & Kaul, S. (2013). Bilingualism delays age at onset of dementia, independent of education and immigration status. Neurology, 81(22), 1938–1944. https://doi.org/10.1212/01.wnl.0000436620.33155.a4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alladi, S., Bak, T. H., Mekala, S., Rajan, A., Chaudhuri, J. R., Mioshi, E., Krovvidi, R., Surampudi, B., Duggirala, V., & Kaul, S. (2016). Impact of bilingualism on cognitive outcome after stroke. Stroke, 47(1), 258–261. https://doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.115.010418CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, J. A. E., Grundy, J. G., De Frutos, J., Barker, R. M., Grady, C., & Bialystok, E. (2018). Effects of bilingualism on white matter integrity in older adults. NeuroImage, 167, 143–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.11.038CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, J. A. E., Hawrylewicz, K., & Grundy, J. G. (2020). Does bilingualism protect against dementia? A meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 27(5), 952–965. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423–020-01736-5CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ansaldo, A. I., Ghazi-Saidi, L., & Adrover-Roig, D. (2015). Interference control in elderly bilinguals: Appearances can be misleading. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 37(5), 455–470. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2014.990359CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Apostolova, L. G., Steiner, C. A., Akopyan, G. G., Dutton, R. A., Hayashi, K. M., Toga, A. W., Cummings, J. L., & Thompson, P. M. (2007). Three-dimensional gray matter atrophy mapping in mild cognitive impairment and mild Alzheimer disease. Archives of Neurology, 64(10), 1489–1495. https://doi.org/10.1001/archneur.64.10.1489CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Arce Rentería, M., Casalletto, K., Tom, S., Pa, J., Harrati, A., Armstrong, N., Rajan, K. B., Manly, J., Mungas, D., & Zahodne, L. (2019). The contributions of active Spanish-English bilingualism to cognitive reserve among older Hispanic adults living in California. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 34(7), 1235–1235. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acz029.02CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aveledo, F., Higueras, Y., Marinis, T., Bose, A., Pliatsikas, C., Meldaña, A., Martínez-Guinés, M. L., García-Domínguez, J. M., Lozano-Ros, A., Cuello, J. P., & Goicochea-Briceño, H. (2020). Multiple sclerosis and bilingualism: Some initial findings. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 10(January), 1–30. https://doi.org/10.1075/lab.18037.aveGoogle Scholar
Bak, T. H., Nissan, J. J., Allerhand, M. M., & Deary, I. J. (2014). Does bilingualism influence cognitive aging? Annals of Neurology, 75(6), 959–963. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.24158CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baum, S., & Titone, D. (2014). Moving toward a neuroplasticity view of bilingualism, executive control, and aging. Applied Psycholinguistics, 35(5), 857–894. https://doi.org/DOI:10.1017/S0142716414000174CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berkes, M., Calvo, N., Anderson, J. A. E., Bialystok, E., & Initiative for Alzheimer’s Disease Neuroimaging. (2021). Poorer clinical outcomes for older adult monolinguals when matched to bilinguals on brain health. Brain Structure and Function, 226(2), 415–424. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00429–020-02185-5CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bialystok, E. (2017). The bilingual adaptation: How minds accommodate experience. Psychological Bulletin, 143(3), 233–262. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000099CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., Binns, M. A., Ossher, L., & Freedman, M. (2014). Effects of bilingualism on the age of onset and progression of MCI and AD: Evidence from executive function tests. Neuropsychology, 28(2), 290–304. https://doi.org/10.1037/neu0000023CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., & Freedman, M. (2007). Bilingualism as a protection against the onset of symptoms of dementia. Neuropsychologia, 45(2), 459–464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.10.009CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., Klein, R., & Viswanathan, M. (2004). Bilingualism, aging, and cognitive control: Evidence from the Simon task. Psychology and Aging, 19(2), 290–303. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.19.2.290CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bialystok, E., Craik, F., & Luk, G. (2008). Cognitive control and lexical access in younger and older bilinguals. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 34(4), 859–873. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.34.4.859Google ScholarPubMed
Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., & Ryan, J. (2006). Executive control in a modified antisaccade task: Effects of aging and bilingualism. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 32, 1341–1354. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.32.6.1341Google Scholar
Bialystok, E., Poarch, G., Luo, L., & Craik, F. I. M. (2014). Effects of bilingualism and aging on executive function and working memory. Psychology and Aging, 29(3), 696–705. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037254CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brini, S., Sohrabi, H. R., Hebert, J. J., Forrest, M. R. L., Laine, M., Hämäläinen, H., Karrasch, M., Peiffer, J. J., Martins, R. N., & Fairchild, T. J. (2020). Bilingualism is associated with a delayed onset of dementia but not with a lower risk of developing it: A systematic review with meta-analyses. Neuropsychology Review, 30(1), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065–020-09426-8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Canadian Institute for Health Information. (2022). National health expenditure trends [release summary]. www.cihi.ca/en/national-health-expenditure-trends-2022-snapshotGoogle Scholar
Cheng, S. (2016). Cognitive reserve and the prevention of dementia: The role of physical and cognitive activities. Current Psychiatry Reports, 18(9), 85.10.1007/s11920-016-0721-2CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chertkow, H., Whitehead, V., Phillips, N., Wolfson, C., Atherton, J., & Bergman, H. (2010). Multilingualism (but not always bilingualism) delays the onset of Alzheimer disease: Evidence from a bilingual community. Alzheimer Disease & Associated Disorders, 24(2). https://journals.lww.com/alzheimerjournal/Fulltext/2010/04000/Multilingualism__But_Not_Always_Bilingualism_.2.aspx10.1097/WAD.0b013e3181ca1221CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chin, A. L., Negash, S., & Hamilton, R. (2011). Diversity and disparity in dementia: The impact of ethnoracial differences in Alzheimer disease. Alzheimer Disease and Associated Disorders, 25(3), 187–195. https://doi.org/10.1097/WAD.0b013e318211c6c9CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Costumero, V., Marin-Marin, L., Calabria, M., Belloch, V., Escudero, J., Baquero, M., Hernandez, M., Ruiz de Miras, J., Costa, A., Parcet, M.-A., & Ávila, C. (2020). A cross-sectional and longitudinal study on the protective effect of bilingualism against dementia using brain atrophy and cognitive measures. Alzheimer’s Research & Therapy, 12(1), 11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13195–020-0581-1CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Craik, F. I. M., Bialystok, E., & Freedman, M. (2010). Delaying the onset of Alzheimer disease: Bilingualism as a form of cognitive reserve. Neurology, 75(19), 1726–1729. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181fc2a1cCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dash, T., Berroir, P., Joanette, Y., & Ansaldo, A. I. (2019). Alerting, orienting, and executive control: The effect of bilingualism and age on the subcomponents of attention. Frontiers in Neurology, 10, 1122. www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fneur.2019.0112210.3389/fneur.2019.01122CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dause, T. J., & Kirby, E. D. (2019). Aging gracefully: Social engagement joins exercise and enrichment as a key lifestyle factor in resistance to age-related cognitive decline. Neural Regeneration Research, 14(1), 39–42. https://doi.org/10.4103/1673-5374.243698Google ScholarPubMed
Davis, S. W., Dennis, N. A., Daselaar, S. M., Fleck, M. S., & Cabeza, R. (2008). Qué PASA? The posterior-anterior shift in aging. Cerebral Cortex, 18(5), 1201–1209. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhm155CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Baene, W., Duyck, W., Brass, M., & Carreiras, M. (2015). Brain circuit for cognitive control is shared by task and language switching. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 27(9), 1752–1765. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_00817CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Frutos-Lucas, J., López-Sanz, D., Cuesta, P., Bruña, R., De La Fuente, S., Serrano, N., López, M. E., Delgado-Losada, M. L., López-Higes, R., Marcos, A., & Maestú, F. (2020). Enhancement of posterior brain functional networks in bilingual older adults. Bilingualism, 23(2), 387–400. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728919000178CrossRefGoogle Scholar
De Houwer, A. (2021). Bilingual Development in Childhood. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/DOI:10.1017/9781108866002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
de Leon, J., Grasso, S. M., Welch, A., Miller, Z., Shwe, W., Rabinovici, G. D., Miller, B. L., Henry, M. L., & Gorno-Tempini, M. L. (2020). Effects of bilingualism on age at onset in two clinical Alzheimer’s disease variants. Alzheimer’s & Dementia, 16(12), 1704–1713. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/alz.12170CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Del Maschio, N., Sulpizio, S., Gallo, F., Fedeli, D., Weekes, B. S., & Abutalebi, J. (2018). Neuroplasticity across the lifespan and aging effects in bilinguals and monolinguals. Brain and Cognition, 125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2018.06.007CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Della Rosa, P. A., Videsott, G., Borsa, V. M., Canini, M., Weekes, B. S., Franceschini, R., & Abutalebi, J. (2013). A neural interactive location for multilingual talent. Cortex, 49(2), 605–608. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2012.12.001CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DeLuca, V., Rothman, J., Bialystok, E., & Pliatsikas, C. (2019). Redefining bilingualism as a spectrum of experiences that differentially affects brain structure and function. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(15), 7565–7574. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1811513116CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DeLuca, V., Rothman, J., & Pliatsikas, C. (2019). Linguistic immersion and structural effects on the bilingual brain: A longitudinal study. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 22(5), 1160–1175. https://doi.org/DOI:10.1017/S1366728918000883CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dennis, N. A., & Cabeza, R. (2008). Neuroimaging of healthy cognitive aging. In The Handbook of Aging and Cognition, 3rd ed. (pp. 1–54). Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Duñabeitia, J. A., Hernández, J. A., Antón, E., Macizo, P., Estévez, A., Fuentes, L. J., & Carreiras, M. (2014). The inhibitory advantage in bilingual children revisited. Experimental Psychology, 61(3), 234–251. https://doi.org/10.1027/1618-3169/a000243CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dyer, S. M., Harrison, S. L., Laver, K., Whitehead, C., & Crotty, M. (2018). An overview of systematic reviews of pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions for the treatment of behavioral and psychological symptoms of dementia. International Psychogeriatrics, 30(3), 295–309. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1041610217002344CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Estanga, A., Ecay-Torres, M., Ibañez, A., Izagirre, A., Villanua, J., Garcia-Sebastian, M., Iglesias Gaspar, M. T., Otaegui-Arrazola, A., Iriondo, A., Clerigue, M., & Martinez-Lage, P. (2017). Beneficial effect of bilingualism on Alzheimer’s disease CSF biomarkers and cognition. Neurobiology of Aging, 50, 144–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2016.10.013CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Farokhian, F., Yang, C., Beheshti, I., Matsuda, H., & Wu, S. (2017). Age-related gray and white matter changes in normal adult brains. Aging and Disease, 8(6), 899–909. https://doi.org/10.14336/AD.2017.0502CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Filippi, R., Richardson, F. M., Dick, F., Leech, R., Green, D. W., Thomas, M. S. C., & Price, C. J. (2011). The right posterior paravermis and the control of language interference. Journal of Neuroscience, 31(29), 10732–10740. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1783-11.2011CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frisoni, G. B., Geroldi, C., Beltramello, A., Bianchetti, A., Binetti, G., Bordiga, G., DeCarli, C., Laakso, M. P., Soininen, H., Testa, C., Zanetti, O., & Trabucchi, M. (2002). Radial width of the temporal horn: A sensitive measure in Alzheimer disease. AJNR. American Journal of Neuroradiology, 23(1), 35–47.Google ScholarPubMed
Frisoni, G., Rossi, R., & Beltramello, A. (2002). The radial width of the temporal horn in mild cognitive impairment. Journal of Neuroimaging, 12(4), 351–354.10.1111/j.1552-6569.2002.tb00143.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gallo, F., & Abutalebi, J. (2024). The unique role of bilingualism among cognitive reserve-enhancing factors. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 27(2), 287–294.10.1017/S1366728923000317CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gallo, F., DeLuca, V., Prystauka, Y., Voits, T., Rothman, J., & Abutalebi, J. (2022). Bilingualism and aging: Implications for (delaying) neurocognitive decline. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 16. www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fnhum.2022.81910510.3389/fnhum.2022.819105CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gallo, F., Kubiak, J., & Myachykov, A. (2022). Add bilingualism to the mix: L2 proficiency modulates the effect of cognitive reserve proxies on executive performance in healthy aging. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.78026110.3389/fpsyg.2022.780261CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gallo, F., Myachykov, A., Shtyrov, Y., & Abutalebi, J. (2020). Cognitive and brain reserve in bilinguals: Field overview and explanatory mechanisms. Journal of Cultural Cognitive Science, 4(2), 127–143. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41809–020-00058-1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gallo, F., Novitskiy, N., Myachykov, A., & Shtyrov, Y. (2021). Individual differences in bilingual experience modulate executive control network and performance: Behavioral and structural neuroimaging evidence. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 24(2), 293–304. https://doi.org/DOI:10.1017/S1366728920000486CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ghazi-Saidi, L. (2019). Bilingual speakers postpone symptoms of cognitive deficit in Parkinson’s disease. GSA 2019 Annual Scientific Meeting, 3, 661–662.Google Scholar
Giorgio, A., Santelli, L., Tomassini, V., Bosnell, R., Smith, S., De Stefano, N., & Johansen-Berg, H. (2010). Age-related changes in grey and white matter structure throughout adulthood. NeuroImage, 51(3), 943–951. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.03.004CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goh, J. O., & Park, D. C. (2009). Neuroplasticity and cognitive aging: The scaffolding theory of aging and cognition. Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience, 27, 391–403. https://doi.org/10.3233/RNN-2009-0493CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gold, B. T., Johnson, N. F., & Powell, D. K. (2013). Lifelong bilingualism contributes to cognitive reserve against white matter integrity declines in aging. Neuropsychologia, 51(13), 2841–2846. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2013.09.037CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gold, B. T., Kim, C., Johnson, N. F., Kryscio, R. J., & Smith, C. D. (2013). Lifelong bilingualism maintains neural efficiency for cognitive control in aging. Journal of Neuroscience, 33(2), 387–396. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3837-12.2013CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gollan, T. H., Salmon, D. P., Montoya, R. I., & Galasko, D. R. (2011). Degree of bilingualism predicts age of diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease in low-education but not in highly educated Hispanics. Neuropsychologia, 49(14), 3826–3830. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.09.041CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grady, C. L., Luk, G., Craik, F. I. M., & Bialystok, E. (2015). Brain network activity in monolingual and bilingual older adults. Neuropsychologia, 66, 170–181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2014.10.042CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grant, A., Dennis, N. A., & Li, P. (2014). Cognitive control, cognitive reserve, and memory in the aging bilingual brain. Frontiers in Psychology, 5(DEC), 1401. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01401CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Green, D. W., & Abutalebi, J. (2013). Language control in bilinguals: The adaptive control hypothesis. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 25(5), 515–530. https://doi.org/10.1080/20445911.2013.796377CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grundy, J. G., Anderson, J. A. E., & Bialystok, E. (2017). Neural correlates of cognitive processing in monolinguals and bilinguals. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1396(1), 183–201. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.13333CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gullifer, J. W., Chai, X. J., Whitford, V., Pivneva, I., Baum, S., Klein, D., & Titone, D. (2018). Bilingual experience and resting-state brain connectivity: Impacts of L2 age of acquisition and social diversity of language use on control networks. Neuropsychologia, 117, 123–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2018.04.037CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunning-Dixon, F. M., Brickman, A. M., Cheng, J. C., & Alexopoulos, G. S. (2009). Aging of cerebral white matter: A review of MRI findings. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 24(2), 109–117. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.2087CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Guzmán-Vélez, E., & Tranel, D. (2015). Does bilingualism contribute to cognitive reserve? Cognitive and Neural Perspectives. Neuropsychology, 29(1), 139–150. https://doi.org/10.1037/neu0000105Google ScholarPubMed
Heim, S., Stumme, J., Bittner, N., Jockwitz, C., Amunts, K., & Caspers, S. (2019). Bilingualism and “brain reserve”: A matter of age. Neurobiology of Aging, 81, 157–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2019.05.021CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Henry, M. L., & Gorno-Tempini, M. L. (2010). The logopenic variant of primary progressive aphasia. Current Opinion in Neurology, 23(6), 633–637. https://doi.org/10.1097/WCO.0b013e32833fb93eCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hindle, J. V., Martin-Forbes, P. A., Martyr, A., Bastable, A. J. M., Pye, K. L., Mueller Gathercole, V. C., Thomas, E. M., & Clare, L. (2017). The effects of lifelong cognitive lifestyle on executive function in older people with Parkinson’s disease. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 32(12), e157–e165. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.4677CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hötting, K., & Röder, B. (2013). Beneficial effects of physical exercise on neuroplasticity and cognition. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 37(9, Part B), 2243–2257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.04.005CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Houtzager, N., Lowie, W., Sprenger, S., & De Bot, K. (2017). A bilingual advantage in task switching? Age-related differences between German monolinguals and Dutch-Frisian bilinguals. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 20(1), 69–79. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728915000498CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Incera, S., & McLennan, C. T. (2018). Bilingualism and age are continuous variables that influence executive function. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 25(3), 443–463. https://doi.org/10.1080/13825585.2017.1319902CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jared, D., & Kroll, J. F. (2001). Do bilinguals activate phonological representations in one or both of their languages when naming words? Journal of Memory and Language, 44(1), 2–31. https://doi.org/10.1006/jmla.2000.2747CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kalpouzos, G., Chételat, G., Baron, J. C., Landeau, B., Mevel, K., Godeau, C., Barré, L., Constans, J. M., Viader, F., Eustache, F., & Desgranges, B. (2009). Voxel-based mapping of brain gray matter volume and glucose metabolism profiles in normal aging. Neurobiology of Aging, 30(1), 112–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2007.05.019CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Klein, R. M., Christie, J., & Parkvall, M. (2016). Does multilingualism affect the incidence of Alzheimer’s disease? A worldwide analysis by country. SSM - Population Health, 2, 463–467. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2016.06.002CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kontis, V., Bennett, J. E., Mathers, C. D., Li, G., Foreman, K., & Ezzati, M. (2017). Future life expectancy in 35 industrialised countries: Projections with a Bayesian model ensemble. The Lancet, 389(10076), 1323–1335. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140–6736(16)32381-9CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kowoll, M. E., Degen, C., Gorenc, L., Küntzelmann, A., Fellhauer, I., Giesel, F., Haberkorn, U., & Schröder, J. (2016). Bilingualism as a contributor to cognitive reserve? Evidence from cerebral glucose metabolism in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 7(APR), 15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2016.00062CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kroll, J. F., Bobb, S. C., Misra, M., & Guo, T. (2008). Language selection in bilingual speech: Evidence for inhibitory processes. Acta Psychologica, 128(3), 416–430. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actpsy.2008.02.001CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kuhl, P. K., Stevenson, J., Corrigan, N. M., van den Bosch, J. J. F., Can, D. D., & Richards, T. (2016). Neuroimaging of the bilingual brain: Structural brain correlates of listening and speaking in a second language. Brain and Language, 162, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2016.07.004CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leivada, E., Westergaard, M., Duñabeitia, J. A., & Rothman, J. (2021). On the phantom-like appearance of bilingualism effects on neurocognition: (How) should we proceed? Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 24(1), 197–210. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728920000358CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Li, L., Abutalebi, J., Emmorey, K., Gong, G., Yan, X., Feng, X., Zou, L., & Ding, G. (2017). How bilingualism protects the brain from aging: Insights from bimodal bilinguals. Human Brain Mapping, 38(8), 4109–4124. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.23652CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Li, P., Legault, J., & Litcofsky, K. A. (2014). Neuroplasticity as a function of second language learning: Anatomical changes in the human brain. Cortex, 58, 301–324. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2014.05.001CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Livingston, G., Sommerlad, A., Orgeta, V., Costafreda, S. G., Huntley, J., Ames, D., Ballard, C., Banerjee, S., Burns, A., Cohen-Mansfield, J., Cooper, C., Fox, N., Gitlin, L. N., Howard, R., Kales, H. C., Larson, E. B., Ritchie, K., Rockwood, K., Sampson, E. L., … Mukadam, N. (2017). Dementia prevention, intervention, and care. The Lancet, 390(10113), 2673–2734. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140–6736(17)31363-6CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ljungberg, J. K., Hansson, P., Andrés, P., Josefsson, M., & Nilsson, L.-G. (2013). A longitudinal study of memory advantages in bilinguals. PLoS ONE, 8(9). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0073029CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
López Zunini, R. A., Morrison, C., Kousaie, S., & Taler, V. (2019). Task switching and bilingualism in young and older adults: A behavioral and electrophysiological investigation. Neuropsychologia, 133, 107186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2019.107186CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lövdén, M., Wenger, E., Mårtensson, J., Lindenberger, U., & Bäckman, L. (2013). Structural brain plasticity in adult learning and development. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 37(9, Part B), 2296–2310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.02.014CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luk, G., Anderson, J. A. E., Craik, F. I. M., Grady, C., & Bialystok, E. (2010). Distinct neural correlates for two types of inhibition in bilinguals: Response inhibition versus interference suppression. Brain and Cognition, 74(3), 347–357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2010.09.004CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luk, G., & Bialystok, E. (2013). Bilingualism is not a categorical variable: Interaction between language proficiency and usage. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 25(5), 605–621. https://doi.org/10.1080/20445911.2013.795574CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luk, G., Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., & Grady, C. L. (2011). Lifelong bilingualism maintains white matter integrity in older adults. Journal of Neuroscience, 31(46), 16808–16813. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4563-11.2011CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luo, D., Kwok, V. P. Y., Liu, Q., Li, W., Yang, Y., Zhou, K., Xu, M., Gao, J.-H., & Tan, L. H. (2019). Microstructural plasticity in the bilingual brain. Brain and Language, 196, 104654. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2019.104654CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luo, L., Craik, F. I. M., Moreno, S., & Bialystok, E. (2013). Bilingualism interacts with domain in a working memory task: Evidence from aging. Psychology and Aging, 28(1), 28–34. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030875CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacPherson, S., & Cox, S. (2017). The frontal ageing hypothesis: Evidence from normal ageing and dementia. In Handbook of Gerontology Research Methods: Understanding Successful Ageing (pp. 139–158). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.Google Scholar
Martínez-Horta, S., Moreu, A., Perez-Perez, J., Sampedro, F., Horta-Barba, A., Pagonabarraga, J., Gomez-Anson, B., Lozano-Martinez, G. A., Lopez-Mora, D. A., Camacho, V., Fernández-León, A., Carrió, I., & Kulisevsky, J. (2018). The impact of bilingualism on brain structure and function in Huntington’s disease. Parkinsonism & Related Disorders, 60, 92–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.parkreldis.2018.09.017CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maruszak, A., & Thuret, S. (2014). Why looking at the whole hippocampus is not enough: A critical role for anteroposterior axis, subfield and activation analyses to enhance predictive value of hippocampal changes for Alzheimer’s disease diagnosis. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience, 8, 95. www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fncel.2014.0009510.3389/fncel.2014.00095CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mechelli, A., Crinion, J. T., Noppeney, U., O’ Doherty, J., Ashburner, J., Frackowiak, R. S., & Price, C. J. (2004). Neurolinguistics: Structural plasticity in the bilingual brain. Nature, 431(7010), 757. https://doi.org/10.1038/431757aCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mendez, M. F., Chavez, D., & Akhlaghipour, G. (2019). Bilingualism delays expression of Alzheimer’s clinical syndrome. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, 48(5–6), 281–289. https://doi.org/10.1159/000505872CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meng, X., & D’Arcy, C. (2012). Education and dementia in the context of the cognitive reserve hypothesis: A systematic review with meta-analyses and qualitative analyses. PLoS ONE, 7(6), e38268–e38268. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0038268CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mitchell, E. M. (2016). Concentration of Health Expenditures in the U.S. Civilian Noninstitutionalized Population, 2014. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (US), Rockville (MD). http://europepmc.org/abstract/MED/28422468Google Scholar
Nakamura, A., Cuesta, P., Kato, T., Arahata, Y., Iwata, K., Yamagishi, M., Kuratsubo, I., Kato, K., Bundo, M., Diers, K., Fernández, A., Maestú, F., & Ito, K. (2017). Early functional network alterations in asymptomatic elders at risk for Alzheimer’s disease. Scientific Reports, 7(1), 6517. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598–017-06876-8CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nichols, E. S., Wild, C. J., Stojanoski, B., Battista, M. E., & Owen, A. M. (2020). Bilingualism affords no general cognitive advantages: A population study of executive function in 11,000 people. Psychological Science, 31(5), 548–567. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797620903113CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olsen, R. K., Pangelinan, M. M., Bogulski, C., Chakravarty, M. M., Luk, G., Grady, C. L., & Bialystok, E. (2015). The effect of lifelong bilingualism on regional grey and white matter volume. Brain Research, 1612, 128–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2015.02.034CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Olulade, O. A., Jamal, N. I., Koo, D. S., Perfetti, C. A., LaSasso, C., & Eden, G. F. (2016). Neuroanatomical evidence in support of the bilingual advantage theory. Cerebral Cortex, 26(7), 3196–3204. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhv152CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ossher, L., Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., Murphy, K. J., & Troyer, A. K. (2013). The effect of bilingualism on amnestic mild cognitive impairment. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 68(1), 8–12. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbs038CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paap, K. R., Johnson, H. A., & Sawi, O. (2015). Bilingual advantages in executive functioning either do not exist or are restricted to very specific and undetermined circumstances. Cortex, 69, 265–278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2015.04.014CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paplikar, A., Mekala, S., Bak, T. H., Dharamkar, S., Alladi, S., & Kaul, S. (2018). Bilingualism and the severity of poststroke aphasia. Aphasiology, 33(1), 58–72. https://doi.org/10.1080/02687038.2017.1423272CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Paulavicius, A. M., Mizzaci, C. C., Tavares, D. R. B., Rocha, A. P., Civile, V. T., Schultz, R. R., Pinto, A. C. P. N., & Trevisani, V. F. M. (2020). Bilingualism for delaying the onset of Alzheimer’s disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis. European Geriatric Medicine, 11(4), 651–658. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41999–020-00326-xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perani, D., Farsad, M., Ballarini, T., Lubian, F., Malpetti, M., Fracchetti, A., Magnani, G., March, A., & Abutalebi, J. (2017). The impact of bilingualism on brain reserve and metabolic connectivity in Alzheimer’s dementia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 114(7), 1690–1695. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1610909114CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Perquin, M., Vaillant, M., Schuller, A.-M., Pastore, J., Dartigues, J.-F., Lair, M.-L., & Diederich, N. (2013). Lifelong exposure to multilingualism: New evidence to support cognitive reserve hypothesis. PLoS ONE, 8(4), e62030. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0062030CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Persson, J., Nyberg, L., Lind, J., Larsson, A., Nilsson, L.-G., Ingvar, M., & Buckner, R. L. (2006). Structure–function correlates of cognitive decline in aging. Cerebral Cortex, 16(7), 907–915. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhj036CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pliatsikas, C. (2020). Understanding structural plasticity in the bilingual brain: The dynamic restructuring model. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 23(2), 459–471. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728919000130CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pliatsikas, C., DeLuca, V., Moschopoulou, E., & Saddy, J. D. (2017). Immersive bilingualism reshapes the core of the brain. Brain Structure and Function, 222(4), 1785–1795. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00429–016-1307-9CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pliatsikas, C., DeLuca, V., & Voits, T. (2020). The many shades of bilingualism: Language experiences modulate adaptations in brain structure. Language Learning, 70(S2), 133–149. https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12386CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pliatsikas, C., Johnstone, T., & Marinis, T. (2014). Grey matter volume in the cerebellum is related to the processing of grammatical rules in a second language: A structural voxel-based morphometry study. Cerebellum, 13(1), 55–63. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12311–013-0515-6CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prince, M. J., Comas-Herrera, A., Knapp, M., Guerchet, M. M., & Karagiannidou, M. (2016). World Alzheimer Report 2016 – Improving healthcare for people living with dementia: Coverage, quality and costs now and in the future. Alzheimer’s Disease International. www.alz.co.uk/research/world-report-2016Google Scholar
Raftery, A. E., Chunn, J. L., Gerland, P., & Ševčíková, H. (2013). Bayesian probabilistic projections of life expectancy for all countries. Demography, 50(3), 777–801. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524–012-0193-xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ramakrishnan, S., Mekala, S., Mamidipudi, A., Yareeda, S., Mridula, R., Bak, T. H., Alladi, S., & Kaul, S. (2017). Comparative effects of education and bilingualism on the onset of mild cognitive impairment. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, 44(3–4), 222–231. https://doi.org/10.1159/000479791CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ressel, V., Pallier, C., Ventura-Campos, N., Díaz, B., Roessler, A., Ávila, C., & Sebastián-Gallés, N. (2012). An effect of bilingualism on the auditory cortex. The Journal of Neuroscience, 32(47), 16597 LP–16601. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1996-12.2012CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reuter-Lorenz, P. A., Festini, S. B., & Jantz, T. K. (2021). Chapter 5: Executive functions and neurocognitive aging. In Schaie, K. W. & Willis, S. (Eds.), Handbook of the Psychology of Aging (Ninth Edition) (pp. 67–81). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978–0-12-816094-7.00019-2CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robertson, I. H. (2013). A noradrenergic theory of cognitive reserve: Implications for Alzheimer’s disease. Neurobiology of Aging, 34(1), 298–308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2012.05.019CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rodríguez-Pujadas, A., Sanjuán, A., Fuentes, P., Ventura-Campos, N., Barrós-Loscertales, A., & Ávila, C. (2014). Differential neural control in early bilinguals and monolinguals during response inhibition. Brain and Language, 132, 43–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2014.03.003CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sala, A., Malpetti, M., Farsad, M., Lubian, F., Magnani, G., Frasca Polara, G., Epiney, J.-B., Abutalebi, J., Assal, F., Garibotto, V., & Perani, D. (2022). Lifelong bilingualism and mechanisms of neuroprotection in Alzheimer dementia. Human Brain Mapping, 43(2), 581–592. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.25605CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sattler, C., Toro, P., Schönknecht, P., & Schröder, J. (2012). Cognitive activity, education and socioeconomic status as preventive factors for mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease. Psychiatry Research, 196(1), 90–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2011.11.012CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schweizer, T. A., Ware, J., Fischer, C. E., Craik, F. I. M., & Bialystok, E. (2012). Bilingualism as a contributor to cognitive reserve: Evidence from brain atrophy in Alzheimer’s disease. Cortex, 48(8), 991–996. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2011.04.009CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seeman, T. E., Miller-Martinez, D. M., Stein Merkin, S., Lachman, M. E., Tun, P. A., & Karlamangla, A. S. (2011). Histories of social engagement and adult cognition: Midlife in the U.S. Study. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 66B(suppl_1), i141–i152. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbq091CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shearer, J., Green, C., Ritchie, C. W., & Zajicek, J. P. (2012). Health state values for use in the economic evaluation of treatments for Alzheimer’s disease. Drugs & Aging, 29(1), 31–43. https://doi.org/10.2165/11597380-000000000-00000CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Soltani, M., Fatemeh Emami Dehcheshmeh, S., Moradi, N., Hajiyakhchali, A., Majdinasab, N., Mahmood Latifi, S., Hosseini beidokhti, M., Soltani, C. M., & Dehcheshmeh, E. S. (2018). Comparing executive functions in bilinguals and monolinguals suffering from relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis. Journal of Modern Rehabilitation, 12(2), 133–139.Google Scholar
Spivey, M. J., & Marian, V. (1999). Cross talk between native and second languages: Partial activation of an irrelevant lexicon. Psychological Science, 10(3), 281–284. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00151CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stebbins, G. T., & Murphy, C. M. (2009). Diffusion tensor imaging in Alzheimer’s disease and mild cognitive impairment. Behavioural Neurology, 21(1–2), 39–49.10.1155/2009/915041CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Steffener, J., Reuben, A., Rakitin, B. C., & Stern, Y. (2011). Supporting performance in the face of age-related neural changes: Testing mechanistic roles of cognitive reserve. Brain Imaging and Behavior, 5(3), 212–221. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11682–011-9125-4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stein, M., Federspiel, A., Koenig, T., Wirth, M., Strik, W., Wiest, R., Brandeis, D., & Dierks, T. (2012). Structural plasticity in the language system related to increased second language proficiency. Cortex, 48(4), 458–465. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2010.10.007CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stern, Y. (2003). The concept of cognitive reserve: A catalyst for research. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 25(5), 589–593. https://doi.org/10.1076/jcen.25.5.589.14571CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stern, Y. (Ed.). (2007). Cognitive reserve: Theory and applications. In Cognitive Reserve: Theory and Applications. (pp. xxi, 344–xxi, 344). Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Stern, Y. (2009). Cognitive reserve. Neuropsychologia, 47(10), 2015–2028. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.03.004CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stern, Y. (Ed.). (2013). Cognitive Reserve: Theory and Applications. Psychology Press.10.4324/9780203783047CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stern, Y., Arenaza‐Urquijo, E. M., Bartrés‐Faz, D., Belleville, S., Cantilon, M., Chetelat, G., Ewers, M., Franzmeier, N., Kempermann, G., Kremen, W. S., Okonkwo, O., Scarmeas, N., Soldan, A., Udeh‐Momoh, C., Valenzuela, M., Vemuri, P., & Vuoksimaa, E. (2020). Whitepaper: Defining and investigating cognitive reserve, brain reserve, and brain maintenance. Alzheimer’s & Dementia, 16(9), 1305–1311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2018.07.219CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stocco, A., Yamasaki, B., Natalenko, R., & Prat, C. S. (2014). Bilingual brain training: A neurobiological framework of how bilingual experience improves executive function. International Journal of Bilingualism, 18(1), 67–92.10.1177/1367006912456617CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sulpizio, S., Del Maschio, N., Del Mauro, G., Fedeli, D., & Abutalebi, J. (2020). Bilingualism as a gradient measure modulates functional connectivity of language and control networks. NeuroImage, 205, 116306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.116306CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sumowski, J. F., Chiaravalloti, N., Wylie, G., & Deluca, J. (2009). Cognitive reserve moderates the negative effect of brain atrophy on cognitive efficiency in multiple sclerosis. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 15(4), 606–612. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1355617709090912CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tucker, A. M., & Stern, Y. (2011). Cognitive reserve in aging. Current Alzheimer Research, 8(4), 354–360. https://doi.org/10.2174/156720511795745320CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Valian, V. (2015). Bilingualism and cognition. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 18(1), 3–24. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728914000522CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vemuri, P., Lesnick, T. G., Przybelski, S. A., Machulda, M., Knopman, D. S., Mielke, M. M., Roberts, R. O., Geda, Y. E., Rocca, W. A., Petersen, R. C., & Jack, C. R. Jr (2014). Association of lifetime intellectual enrichment with cognitive decline in the older population. JAMA Neurology, 71(8), 1017–1024. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2014.963CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Voits, T. (2020). Bilingualism as a neuroprotective factor in ageing: Insights from healthy and clinical populations (Issue September) [University of Reading]. https://doi.org/10.48683/1926.00097032CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Voits, T., Pliatsikas, C., Robson, H., & Rothman, J. (2020). Beyond Alzheimer’s disease: Can bilingualism be a more generalized protective factor in neurodegeneration? Neuropsychologia, 147(April), 107593. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2020.107593CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Voits, T., Robson, H., Rothman, J., & Pliatsikas, C. (2022). The effects of bilingualism on hippocampal volume in ageing bilinguals. Brain Structure and Function, 227(3), 979–994. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00429–021-02436-zCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilson, R. S., Boyle, P. A., Yang, J., James, B. D., & Bennett, D. A. (2015). Early life instruction in foreign language and music and incidence of mild cognitive impairment. Neuropsychology, 29(2), 292–302. https://doi.org/10.1037/neu0000129CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wimo, A., Guerchet, M., Ali, G.-C., Wu, Y.-T., Prina, A. M., Winblad, B., Jönsson, L., Liu, Z., & Prince, M. (2017). The worldwide costs of dementia 2015 and comparisons with 2010. Alzheimer’s & Dementia: The Journal of the Alzheimer’s Association, 13(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2016.07.150CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Winblad, B., Amouyel, P., Andrieu, S., Ballard, C., Brayne, C., Brodaty, H., Cedazo-Minguez, A., Dubois, B., Edvardsson, D., Feldman, H., Fratiglioni, L., Frisoni, G. B., Gauthier, S., Georges, J., Graff, C., Iqbal, K., Jessen, F., Johansson, G., Jönsson, L., … Zetterberg, H. (2016). Defeating Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias: A priority for European science and society. The Lancet Neurology, 15(5), 455–532. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474–4422(16)00062-4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wodniecka, Z., Craik, F. I. M., Luo, L., & Bialystok, E. (2010). Does bilingualism help memory? Competing effects of verbal ability and executive control. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 13(5), 575–595. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2010.488287CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wong, W. (2020). Economic burden of Alzheimer disease and managed care considerations. The American Journal of Managed Care, 26(Suppl 8), S177–S183. https://doi.org/10.37765/ajmc.2020.88482Google ScholarPubMed
World Health Organization. (2019). Dementia. www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/dementiaGoogle Scholar
Woumans, E., Santens, P., Sieben, A., Versijpt, J., Stevens, M., & Duyck, W. (2015). Bilingualism delays clinical manifestation of Alzheimer’s disease. Bilingualism, 18(3), 568–574. https://doi.org/10.1017/S136672891400087XCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Xu, J., Zhang, Y., Qiu, C., & Cheng, F. (2017). Global and regional economic costs of dementia: A systematic review. The Lancet, 390(S47). https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140–6736(17)33185-9CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yaffe, K., Fiocco, A. J., Lindquist, K., Vittinghoff, E., Simonsick, E. M., Newman, A. B., Satterfield, S., Rosano, C., Rubin, S. M., Ayonayon, H. N., & Harris, T. B. (2009). Predictors of maintaining cognitive function in older adults. Neurology, 72(23), 2029 LP – 2035. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181a92c36CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zhang, Y., Londos, E., Minthon, L., Wattmo, C., Liu, H., Aspelin, P., & Wahlund, L.-O. (2008). Usefulness of computed tomography linear measurements in diagnosing Alzheimer’s disease. Acta Radiologica, 49(1), 91–97. https://doi.org/10.1080/02841850701753706CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zheng, Y., Wu, Q., Su, F., Fang, Y., Zeng, J., & Pei, Z. (2018). The protective effect of Cantonese/Mandarin bilingualism on the onset of Alzheimer disease. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders, 45(3–4), 210–219. https://doi.org/10.1159/000488485CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zou, L., Ding, G., Abutalebi, J., Shu, H., & Peng, D. (2012). Structural plasticity of the left caudate in bimodal bilinguals. Cortex, 48(9), 1197–1206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2011.05.022CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Accessibility standard: WCAG 2.2 AAA

Why this information is here

This section outlines the accessibility features of this content - including support for screen readers, full keyboard navigation and high-contrast display options. This may not be relevant for you.

Accessibility Information

The PDF of this book complies with version 2.2 of the Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG), offering more comprehensive accessibility measures for a broad range of users and attains the highest (AAA) level of WCAG compliance, optimising the user experience by meeting the most extensive accessibility guidelines.

Content Navigation

Table of contents navigation
Allows you to navigate directly to chapters, sections, or non‐text items through a linked table of contents, reducing the need for extensive scrolling.
Index navigation
Provides an interactive index, letting you go straight to where a term or subject appears in the text without manual searching.

Reading Order & Textual Equivalents

Single logical reading order
You will encounter all content (including footnotes, captions, etc.) in a clear, sequential flow, making it easier to follow with assistive tools like screen readers.
Short alternative textual descriptions
You get concise descriptions (for images, charts, or media clips), ensuring you do not miss crucial information when visual or audio elements are not accessible.
Full alternative textual descriptions
You get more than just short alt text: you have comprehensive text equivalents, transcripts, captions, or audio descriptions for substantial non‐text content, which is especially helpful for complex visuals or multimedia.

Visual Accessibility

Use of colour is not sole means of conveying information
You will still understand key ideas or prompts without relying solely on colour, which is especially helpful if you have colour vision deficiencies.
Use of high contrast between text and background colour
You benefit from high‐contrast text, which improves legibility if you have low vision or if you are reading in less‐than‐ideal lighting conditions.

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure no-reply@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×