Music and Language in the Brain

doi:10.1017/9781009202336.024

17 - Music and Language in the Brain

Balancing Domain-Specific and Domain-General Mechanisms

from Part V - Brain, Language, and Music

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 12 December 2025

Stephen C. Van Hedger and

Urvi Maheshwari

Edited by

Edna Andrews and

Swathi Kiran

Show author details

Edna Andrews: Affiliation:
Duke University, North Carolina
Swathi Kiran: Affiliation:
Boston University

Book contents

Get access

Summary

Music & spoken language share many features by combining smaller units (e.g., words, notes) into larger structures (e.g., sentences, musical phrases). This hierarchical organization of sound is culturally contingent & communicates meaning to listeners. Comparisons of music & language from a cognitive neuroscience perspective provide several insights into commonalities & differences between these systems, how they are represented in the brain. The cognitive neuroscience research of music & language, emphasizes the pitfalls & promises identified, including (1) the apparent acoustic & structural similarities between these systems, (2) how both systems convey meaning to listeners, (3) how these systems are learned over the course of development, & (4) the ways in which experience in one domain influences processing in the other domain. We conclude that searching for similarities in how these complex systems are structured (e.g., comparing musical syntax to linguistic syntax) represents a pitfall that researchers should approach with caution. A promising approach in this area of research is to examine how general cognitive mechanisms underlie the learning & maintenance of both systems

Information

Type: Chapter
Information: The Cambridge Handbook of Language and Brain , pp. 459 - 496

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009202336.024 [Opens in a new window]

Publisher: Cambridge University Press

Print publication year: 2025

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Book purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Adger, D. (2015). Syntax: Syntax. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science, 6(2), 131–147. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcs.1332 Google Scholar PubMed

Albouy, P., Benjamin, L., Morillon, B., & Zatorre, R. J. (2020). Distinct sensitivity to spectrotemporal modulation supports brain asymmetry for speech and melody. Science, 367(6481), 1043–1047. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaz3468 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Alexander, E., Van Hedger, S. C., & Batterink, L. J. (2023). Learning words without trying: Daily second language podcasts support word-form learning in adults. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 30(2), 751–762. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-022-02190-1 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Andrews, E. (2014). Neuroscience and Multilingualism. Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9781139567770CrossRef Google Scholar

Andrews, E. (2019). Cognitive neuroscience and multilingualism. In Schwieter, J. W. & Paradis, M. (Eds.), The Handbook of the Neuroscience of Multilingualism (1st ed., pp. 19–47). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119387725.ch2 CrossRef Google Scholar

Andrews, E., Eierud, C., Banks, D., Harshbarger, T., Michael, A., & Rammell, C. (2021). Effects of lifelong musicianship on white matter integrity and cognitive brain reserve. Brain Sciences, 11(1), 67. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11010067 CrossRef Google Scholar

Anvari, S. H., Trainor, L. J., Woodside, J., & Levy, B. A. (2002). Relations among musical skills, phonological processing, and early reading ability in preschool children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 83(2), 111–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-0965(02)00124-8 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Asano, R., & Boeckx, C. (2015). Syntax in language and music: What is the right level of comparison? Frontiers in Psychology, 6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00942 CrossRef Google Scholar

Bachem, A. (1955). Absolute pitch. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 27(6), 1180–1185. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.1908155 CrossRef Google Scholar

Benitez, V. L., & Saffran, J. R. (2021). Two for the price of one: Concurrent learning of words and phonotactic regularities from continuous speech. PLoS ONE, 16(6), e0253039. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0253039 CrossRef Google Scholar

Besson, M., Chobert, J., & Marie, C. (2011). Transfer of training between music and speech: Common processing, attention, and memory. Frontiers in Psychology, 2, 94. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00094 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Besson, M., & Macar, F. (1987). An event-related potential analysis of incongruity in music and other non-linguistic contexts. Psychophysiology, 24(1), 14–25. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8986.1987.tb01853.x CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Bialystok, E., & DePape, A. M. (2009). Musical expertise, bilingualism, and executive functioning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 35(2), 565. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012735 Google Scholar PubMed

Bidelman, G. M., Hutka, S., & Moreno, S. (2013). Tone language speakers and musicians share enhanced perceptual and cognitive abilities for musical pitch: Evidence for bidirectionality between the domains of language and music. PLoS ONE, 8(4), e60676. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0060676 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Bidelman, G. M., & Krishnan, A. (2010). Effects of reverberation on brainstem representation of speech in musicians and non-musicians. Brain Research, 1355, 112–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2010.07.100 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Bidelman, G. M., & Yoo, J. (2020). Musicians show improved speech segregation in competitive, multi-talker cocktail party scenarios. Frontiers in Psychology, 11. www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.0192710.3389/fpsyg.2020.01927CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Bigand, E., Delbé, C., Poulin-Charronnat, B., Leman, M., & Tillmann, B. (2014). Empirical evidence for musical syntax processing? Computer simulations reveal the contribution of auditory short-term memory. Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnsys.2014.00094 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Bolinger, D. (1949). The sign is not arbitrary. Boletín del Instituto Caro y Cuervo (= Thesaurus), 5, 52–62.Google Scholar

Bolinger, D. (1983). Intonation and gesture. American Speech, 58(2), 156. https://doi.org/10.2307/455326 CrossRef Google Scholar

Brown, R. (1957). Linguistic determinism and the part of speech. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 55(1), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0041199 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Brown, R. (1973). A First Language: The Early Stages. Harvard University Press.10.4159/harvard.9780674732469CrossRef Google Scholar

Brown, S. (2017). A joint prosodic origin of language and music. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1894. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01894 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Chartrand, J. P., & Belin, P. (2006). Superior voice timbre processing in musicians. Neuroscience Letters, 405(3), 164–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2006.06.053 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Cole, J. (2015). Prosody in context: A review. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 30(1–2), 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1080/23273798.2014.963130 CrossRef Google Scholar

Conboy, B. T., & Kuhl, P. K. (2011). Impact of second‐language experience in infancy: Brain measures of first‐and second‐language speech perception. Developmental Science, 14(2), 242–248. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2010.00973.x CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Corrigall, K. A., Schellenberg, E. G., & Misura, N. M. (2013). Music training, cognition, and personality. Frontiers in Psychology, 4. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00222 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Corrigall, K. A., & Trainor, L. J. (2011). Associations between length of music training and reading skills in children. Music Perception, 29(2), 147–155. https://doi.org/10.1525/mp.2011.29.2.147 CrossRef Google Scholar

Cox, A. (2001). The mimetic hypothesis and embodied musical meaning. Musicae Scientiae, 5(2), 195–212. https://doi.org/10.1177/102986490100500204 CrossRef Google Scholar

Cross, I. (2001). Music, cognition, culture, and evolution. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 930(1), 28–42. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2001.tb05723.x CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Crozier, J. B. (1997). Absolute pitch: Practice makes perfect, the earlier the better. Psychology of Music, 25(2), 110–119. https://doi.org/10.1177/0305735697252002 CrossRef Google Scholar

Crystal, D. (1981). Semantics. In Arnold, G. E., Winckel, F., & Wyke, B. D. (Eds.), Clinical Linguistics (Vol. 3, pp. 131–191). Springer Vienna. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7091-4001-7_5 CrossRef Google Scholar

Curtis, M. E., & Bharucha, J. J. (2010). The minor third communicates sadness in speech, mirroring its use in music. Emotion, 10(3), 335–348. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017928 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Ćwiek, A., Fuchs, S., Draxler, C., Asu, E. L., Dediu, D., Hiovain, K., … & Winter, B. (2022). The bouba/kiki effect is robust across cultures and writing systems. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 377(1841), 20200390. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2020.0390 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Darwin, C. (2007/1874). The Descent of Man: The Concise Edition. Penguin.Google Scholar

Dehaene, S., Dupoux, E., Mehler, J., Cohen, L., Paulesu, E., Perani, D., … & Le Bihan, D. (1997). Anatomical variability in the cortical representation of first and second language. Neuroreport, 8(17), 3809–3815.10.1097/00001756-199712010-00030CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Dehaene-Lambertz, G., Hertz-Pannier, L., & Dubois, J. (2006). Nature and nurture in language acquisition: Anatomical and functional brain-imaging studies in infants. Trends in Neurosciences, 29(7), 367–373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2006.05.011 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Dehaene-Lambertz, G., Hertz-Pannier, L., Dubois, J., & Dehaene, S. (2008). How does early brain organization promote language acquisition in humans? European Review, 16(4), 399–411. doi:10.1017/S1062798708000513CrossRef Google Scholar

Dehaene-Lambertz, G., & Pena, M. (2001). Electrophysiological evidence for automatic phonetic processing in neonates. Neuroreport, 12(14), 3155–3158.10.1097/00001756-200110080-00034CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Deutsch, D. (2013). Absolute pitch. In The Psychology of Music (pp. 141–182). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-381460-9.00005-5 CrossRef Google Scholar

Deutsch, D., Henthorn, T., & Dolson, M. (2004). Absolute pitch, speech, and tone language: Some experiments and a proposed framework. Music Perception, 21(3), 339–356. https://doi.org/10.1525/mp.2004.21.3.339 CrossRef Google Scholar

Deutsch, D., Henthorn, T., Marvin, E., & Xu, H. (2006). Absolute pitch among American and Chinese conservatory students: Prevalence differences, and evidence for a speech-related critical period. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 119(2), 719–722. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.2151799 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Deutsch, D., Lapidis, R., & Henthorn, T. (2008). The speech‐to‐song illusion. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 124(4), 2471–2471. https://doi.org/10.1121/1.4808987 CrossRef Google Scholar

Diedrich, C. G. (2015). “Neanderthal bone flutes”: Simply products of Ice Age spotted hyena scavenging activities on cave bear cubs in European cave bear dens. Royal Society Open Science, 2(4), 140022. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.140022 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Ding, N., Patel, A. D., Chen, L., Butler, H., Luo, C., & Poeppel, D. (2017). Temporal modulations in speech and music. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 81, 181–187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.02.011 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Dollmann, J., Kogan, I., & Weißmann, M. (2020). Speaking accent-free in L2 beyond the critical period: The compensatory role of individual abilities and opportunity structures. Applied Linguistics, 41(5), 787–809. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amz029 CrossRef Google Scholar

Elmer, S., Meyer, M., Marrama, L., & Jäncke, L. (2011). Intensive language training and attention modulate the involvement of fronto-parietal regions during a non-verbal auditory discrimination task. European Journal of Neuroscience, 34(1), 165–175. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-9568.2011.07728.x CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Embick, D., Marantz, A., Miyashita, Y., O’Neil, W., & Sakai, K. L. (2000). A syntactic specialization for Broca’s area. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 97(11), 6150–6154. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.100098897 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Escoffier, N., Zhong, J., Schirmer, A., & Qiu, A. (2013). Emotional expressions in voice and music: Same code, same effect? Human Brain Mapping, 34(8), 1796–1810. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.22029 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Falk, S., Rathcke, T., & Dalla Bella, S. (2014). When speech sounds like music. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 40(4), 1491–1506. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036858 Google Scholar PubMed

Fedorenko, E., Behr, M. K., & Kanwisher, N. (2011). Functional specificity for high-level linguistic processing in the human brain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(39), 16428–16433. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1112937108 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Fedorenko, E., McDermott, J. H., Norman-Haignere, S., & Kanwisher, N. (2012). Sensitivity to musical structure in the human brain. Journal of Neurophysiology, 108(12), 3289–3300. https://doi.org/10.1152/jn.00209.2012 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Fedorenko, E., Patel, A., Casasanto, D., Winawer, J., & Gibson, E. (2009). Structural integration in language and music: Evidence for a shared system. Memory & Cognition, 37(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.3758/MC.37.1.1 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Fiebach, C. J., Schlesewsky, M., Lohmann, G., von Cramon, D. Y., & Friederici, A. D. (2005). Revisiting the role of Broca’s area in sentence processing: Syntactic integration versus syntactic working memory. Human Brain Mapping, 24(2), 79–91. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.20070 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Fiser, J., & Aslin, R. N. (2001). Unsupervised statistical learning of higher-order spatial structures from visual scenes. Psychological Science, 12(6), 499–504. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.003 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

François, C., Jaillet, F., Takerkart, S., & Schön, D. (2014). Faster sound stream segmentation in musicians than in nonmusicians. PLoS ONE, 9(7), e101340. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0101340 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

François, C., & Schön, D. (2014). Neural sensitivity to statistical regularities as a fundamental biological process that underlies auditory learning: The role of musical practice. Hearing Research, 308, 122–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heares.2013.08.018 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Francois, C., & Schön, D. (2011). Musical expertise boosts implicit learning of both musical and linguistic structures. Cerebral Cortex, 21(10), 2357–2365. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhr022 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Friederici, A. D. (2003). The role of left inferior frontal and superior temporal cortex in sentence comprehension: Localizing syntactic and semantic processes. Cerebral Cortex, 13(2), 170–177. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/13.2.170 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Fritz, T., Jentschke, S., Gosselin, N., Sammler, D., Peretz, I., Turner, R., Friederici, A. D., & Koelsch, S. (2009). Universal recognition of three basic emotions in music. Current Biology, 19(7), 573–576. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2009.02.058 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Furl, N., Kumar, S., Alter, K., Durrant, S., Shawe-Taylor, J., & Griffiths, T. D. (2011). Neural prediction of higher-order auditory sequence statistics. Neuroimage, 54(3), 2267–2277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.10.038 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Gallese, V., & Lakoff, G. (2005). The brain’s concepts: The role of the sensory-motor system in conceptual knowledge. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 22(3–4), 455–479. https://doi.org/10.1080/02643290442000310 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Ganis, G., Kutas, M., & Sereno, M. I. (1996). The search for “common sense”: An electrophysiological study of the comprehension of words and pictures in reading. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 8(2), 89–106. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn.1996.8.2.89 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Gervain, J., Vines, B. W., Chen, L. M., Seo, R. J., Hensch, T. K., Werker, J. F., & Young, A. H. (2013). Valproate reopens critical-period learning of absolute pitch. Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnsys.2013.00102 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Geschwind, N. (1970). The organization of language and the brain: Language disorders after brain damage help in elucidating the neural basis of verbal behavior. Science, 170(3961), 940–944. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.170.3961.940 CrossRef Google Scholar

Gibbs, R. W. (2003). Embodied experience and linguistic meaning. Brain and Language, 84(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0093–934X(02)00517-5 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Gleitman, L. (1990). The structural sources of verb meanings. Language Acquisition, 1(1), 3–55.10.1207/s15327817la0101_2CrossRef Google Scholar

Glucksberg, S., & Keysar, B. (1990). Understanding metaphorical comparisons: Beyond similarity. Psychological Review, 97(1), 3–18. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.97.1.3 CrossRef Google Scholar

Grodzinsky, Y., & Friederici, A. D. (2006). Neuroimaging of syntax and syntactic processing. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 16(2), 240–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2006.03.007 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Hagoort, P. (2014). Nodes and networks in the neural architecture for language: Broca’s region and beyond. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 28, 136–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2014.07.013 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Hedger, S. C., Nusbaum, H. C., & Hoeckner, B. (2013). Conveying movement in music and prosody. PLoS ONE, 8(10), e76744. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0076744 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Higham, T., Basell, L., Jacobi, R., Wood, R., Ramsey, C. B., & Conard, N. J. (2012). Τesting models for the beginnings of the Aurignacian and the advent of figurative art and music: The radiocarbon chronology of Geißenklösterle. Journal of Human Evolution, 62(6), 664–676. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2012.03.003 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Hockett, C. F. (1958). A course in modern linguistics. Language Learning, 8(3–4), 73–75. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1958.tb00870.x CrossRef Google Scholar

Hockett, C. F. (1960). The origin of speech. Scientific American, 203(3), 88–96. https://doi.org/10.1038/scientificamerican0960–88 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Honing, H., ten Cate, C., Peretz, I., & Trehub, S. E. (2015). Without it no music: Cognition, biology and evolution of musicality. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 370(1664), 20140088. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2014.0088 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Humphries, C., Liebenthal, E., & Binder, J. R. (2010). Tonotopic organization of human auditory cortex. NeuroImage, 50(3), 1202–1211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.01.046 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Imai, M., & Kita, S. (2014). The sound symbolism bootstrapping hypothesis for language acquisition and language evolution. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 369(1651), 20130298. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0298 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Jakobson, R. (1965). Quest for the essence of language. Diogenes, 13(51), 21–37. https://doi.org/10.1177/039219216501305103 CrossRef Google Scholar

Jakobson, R. (1995). On Language (ed. Waugh, L. R.). Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

Johnson, J. S., & Newport, E. L. (1989). Critical period effects in second language learning: The influence of maturational state on the acquisition of English as a second language. Cognitive Psychology, 21(1), 60–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(89)90003-0 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Jusczyk, P. W., & Bertoncini, J. (1988). Viewing the development of speech perception as an innately guided learning process. Language and Speech, 31(3), 217–238. https://doi.org/10.1177/002383098803100301 CrossRef Google Scholar

Juslin, P. N. (2000). Cue utilization in communication of emotion in music performance: Relating performance to perception. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 26(6), 1797–1812. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.26.6.1797 Google Scholar PubMed

Kim, K. H., Relkin, N. R., Lee, K. M., & Hirsch, J. (1997). Distinct cortical areas associated with native and second languages. Nature, 388(6638), 171–174. https://doi.org/10.1038/40623 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Koelsch, S., Kasper, E., Sammler, D., Schulze, K., Gunter, T., & Friederici, A. D. (2004). Music, language and meaning: Brain signatures of semantic processing. Nature Neuroscience, 7(3), 302–307. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn1197 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Köhler, W. (1929). Gestalt Psychology: An Introduction to New Concepts in Modern Psychology. Liveright.Google Scholar

Kraus, N., & Chandrasekaran, B. (2010). Music training for the development of auditory skills. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 11(8), 599–605. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2882 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Kuhl, P. K., Conboy, B. T., Padden, D., Nelson, T., & Pruitt, J. (2005). Early speech perception and later language development: Implications for the “critical period”. Language Learning and Development, 1(3–4), 237–264. https://doi.org/10.1080/15475441.2005.9671948 CrossRef Google Scholar

Kuhl, P. K., Stevens, E., Hayashi, A., Deguchi, T., Kiritani, S., & Iverson, P. (2006). Infants show a facilitation effect for native language phonetic perception between 6 and 12 months. Developmental Science, 9(2), F13–F21. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2006.00468.x CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Kuhl, P. K., Tsao, F. M., & Liu, H. M. (2003). Foreign-language experience in infancy: Effects of short-term exposure and social interaction on phonetic learning. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 100(15), 9096–9101. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1532872100 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Kunert, R., Willems, R. M., Casasanto, D., Patel, A. D., & Hagoort, P. (2015). Music and language syntax interact in Broca’s Area: An fMRI study. PLoS ONE, 10(11), e0141069. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0141069 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Kutas, M., & Federmeier, K. D. (2011). Thirty years and counting: Finding meaning in the N400 component of the event-related brain potential (ERP). Annual Review of Psychology, 62(1), 621–647. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.131123 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Kutas, M., & Hillyard, S. A. (1980). Reading senseless sentences: Brain potentials reflect semantic incongruity. Science, 207(4427), 203–205. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.7350657 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Landau, B., & Gleitman, L. R. (2009/1985). Language and Experience: Evidence from the Blind Child (Vol. 8). Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

Landau, B., Gleitman, L. R., & Landau, B. (2009). Language and Experience: Evidence from the Blind Child (Vol. 8). Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

Larrouy-Maestri, P., Harrison, P. M. C., & Müllensiefen, D. (2019). The mistuning perception test: A new measurement instrument. Behavior Research Methods, 51(2), 663–675. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-019-01225-1 CrossRef Google Scholar

Lenneberg, E. H. (1967). Biological Foundations of Language. John Wiley & Sons.10.1080/21548331.1967.11707799CrossRef Google Scholar

Lerdahl, F. (2013). Musical syntax and its relation to linguistic syntax. In Arbib, M. A. (Ed.), Language, Music, and the Brain (pp. 257–272). The MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9780262018104.003.0010 CrossRef Google Scholar

Lerdahl, F., & Jackendoff, R. (1983). A Generative Theory of Tonal Music (Repr.). MIT Press.Google Scholar

Liu, J., Hilton, C. B., Bergelson, E., & Mehr, S. A. (2023). Language experience predicts music processing in a half-million speakers of fifty-four languages. Current Biology, 33(10), 1916–1925.10.1016/j.cub.2023.03.067CrossRef Google Scholar

Lupyan, G., & Winter, B. (2018). Language is more abstract than you think, or, why aren’t languages more iconic? Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 373(1752), 20170137. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2017.0137 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Luria, A. R., Tsvetkova, L. S., & Futer, D. S. (1965). Aphasia in a composer. Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 2(3), 288–292. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-510X(65)90113-9 CrossRef Google Scholar

Lynch, M. P., & Eilers, R. E. (1992). A study of perceptual development for musical tuning. Perception & Psychophysics, 52(6), 599–608. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03211696 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Lynch, M. P., Eilers, R. E., Oller, D. K., & Urbano, R. C. (1990). Innateness, experience, and music perception. Psychological Science, 1(4), 272–276. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1990.tb00213.x CrossRef Google Scholar

Lytle, S. R., Garcia-Sierra, A., & Kuhl, P. K. (2018). Two are better than one: Infant language learning from video improves in the presence of peers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(40), 9859–9866. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1611621115 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Maess, B., Koelsch, S., Gunter, T. C., & Friederici, A. D. (2001). Musical syntax is processed in Broca’s area: An MEG study. Nature Neuroscience, 4(5), 540–545. https://doi.org/10.1038/87502 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Magne, C., Schön, D., & Besson, M. (2006). Musician children detect pitch violations in both music and language better than nonmusician children: Behavioral and electrophysiological approaches. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 18(2), 199–211. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn.2006.18.2.199 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Mankel, K., & Bidelman, G. M. (2018). Inherent auditory skills rather than formal music training shape the neural encoding of speech. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(51), 13129–13134. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1811793115 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Mattock, K., & Burnham, D. (2006). Chinese and English infants’ tone perception: Evidence for perceptual reorganization. Infancy, 10(3), 241–265. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327078in1003_3 CrossRef Google Scholar

Mattock, K., Molnar, M., Polka, L., & Burnham, D. (2008). The developmental course of lexical tone perception in the first year of life. Cognition, 106(3), 1367–1381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2007.07.002 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

McDermott, J., & Hauser, M. (2005). The origins of music: Innateness, uniqueness, and evolution. Music Perception, 23(1), 29–59. https://doi.org/10.1525/mp.2005.23.1.29 CrossRef Google Scholar

McMullen, E., & Saffran, J. R. (2004). Music and language: A developmental comparison. Music Perception, 21(3), 289–311. https://doi.org/10.1525/mp.2004.21.3.289 CrossRef Google Scholar

Mehler, J., Jusczyk, P., Lambertz, G., Halsted, N., Bertoncini, J., & Amiel-Tison, C. (1988). A precursor of language acquisition in young infants. Cognition, 29(2), 143–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(88)90035-2 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Mehr, S. A., Singh, M., Knox, D., Ketter, D. M., Pickens-Jones, D., Atwood, S., … & Glowacki, L. (2019). Universality and diversity in human song. Science, 366(6468), eaax0868. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aax0868 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Meisel, J. M. (2013). Language Acquisition and Change: A Morphosyntactic Perspective. Edinburgh University Press.Google Scholar

Meyer, L. B. (1956). Emotion and Meaning in Music (Paperback ed., [Nachdr.]). University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar

Miller, J. L., & Volaitis, L. E. (1989). Effect of speaking rate on the perceptual structure of a phonetic category. Perception & Psychophysics, 46(6), 505–512. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03208147 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Mithen, S. J. (2005). The Singing Neanderthals: The Origins of Music, Language, Mind and Body. Weidenfeld & Nicolson.Google Scholar

Monaghan, P., Shillcock, R. C., Christiansen, M. H., & Kirby, S. (2014). How arbitrary is language? Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 369(1651), 20130299. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0299 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Moreno, S., Bialystok, E., Barac, R., Schellenberg, E. G., Cepeda, N. J., & Chau, T. (2011a). Short-term music training enhances verbal intelligence and executive function. Psychological Science, 22(11), 1425–1433. https://doi.org/10.1177/095679761141699 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Moreno, S., & Bidelman, G. M. (2014). Examining neural plasticity and cognitive benefit through the unique lens of musical training. Hearing Research, 308, 84–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heares.2013.09.012A CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Moreno, S., Friesen, D., & Bialystok, E. (2011b). Effect of music training on promoting preliteracy skills: Preliminary causal evidence. Music Perception, 29(2), 165–172. https://doi.org/10.1525/mp.2011.29.2.165 CrossRef Google Scholar

Moreno, S., Marques, C., Santos, A., Santos, M., Castro, S. L., & Besson, M. (2009). Musical training influences linguistic abilities in 8-year-old children: More evidence for brain plasticity. Cerebral Cortex, 19(3), 712–723. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhn120A CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Murphy, G. L. (1996). On metaphoric representation. Cognition, 60(2), 173–204. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(96)00711-1 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Musacchia, G., Sams, M., Skoe, E., & Kraus, N. (2007). Musicians have enhanced subcortical auditory and audiovisual processing of speech and music. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104(40), 15894–15898. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0701498104 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Naigles, L. (1990). Children use syntax to learn verb meanings. Journal of Child Language, 17(2), 357–374.10.1017/S0305000900013817CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Naigles, L. R., & Swensen, L. D. (2007). Syntactic supports for word learning. In Hoff, E. & Shatz, M. (Eds.), Blackwell Handbook of Language Development (pp. 212–231). Blackwell Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470757833.ch11 CrossRef Google Scholar

Narmour, E. (1990). The Analysis and Cognition of Basic Melodic Structures: The Implication-Realization Model. University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar

Nazzi, T., Bertoncini, J., & Mehler, J. (1998). Language discrimination by newborns: Toward an understanding of the role of rhythm. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 24(3), 756.Google Scholar PubMed

Nazzi, T., & Ramus, F. (2003). Perception and acquisition of linguistic rhythm by infants. Speech Communication, 41(1), 233–243. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-6393(02)00106-1 CrossRef Google Scholar

Nettl, B. (1999). An ethnomusicologist contemplates universals in musical sound and musical culture. In Wallin, N. L., Merker, B., & Brown, S. (Eds.), The Origins of Music (pp. 463–472). The MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/5190.003.0032 CrossRef Google Scholar

Neville, H., Nicol, J. L., Barss, A., Forster, K. I., & Garrett, M. F. (1991). Syntactically based sentence processing classes: Evidence from event-related brain potentials. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 3(2), 151–165. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn.1991.3.2.151 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Neville, H. J., Coffey, S. A., Lawson, D. S., Fischer, A., Emmorey, K., & Bellugi, U. (1997). Neural systems mediating American Sign Language: Effects of sensory experience and age of acquisition. Brain and Language, 57(3), 285–308. https://doi.org/10.1006/brln.1997.1739 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Newport, E. (2006). Language development, critical periods in. In Nadel, L. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science (p. s00506). John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.https://doi.org/10.1002/0470018860.s00506 Google Scholar

Newport, E. L. (1990). Maturational constraints on language learning. Cognitive Science, 14(1), 11–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/0364-0213(90)90024-Q CrossRef Google Scholar

Niedeggen, M., & Rösler, F. (1999). N400 effects reflect activation spread during retrieval of arithmetic facts. Psychological Science, 10(3), 271–276. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00149 CrossRef Google Scholar

Norman-Haignere, S., Kanwisher, N. G., & McDermott, J. H. (2015). Distinct cortical pathways for music and speech revealed by hypothesis-free voxel decomposition. Neuron, 88(6), 1281–1296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2015.11.035 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Nygaard, L. C., Cook, A. E., & Namy, L. L. (2009). Sound to meaning correspondences facilitate word learning. Cognition, 112(1), 181–186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2009.04.001 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Oyama, S. (1976). A sensitive period for the acquisition of a nonnative phonological system. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 5, 261–283. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01067377 CrossRef Google Scholar

Patel, A. D. (2003). Language, music, syntax and the brain. Nature Neuroscience, 6(7), 674–681. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn1082 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Patel, A. D. (2011). Why would musical training benefit the neural encoding of speech? The OPERA hypothesis. Frontiers in Psychology, 2. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00142 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Patel, A. D., Gibson, E., Ratner, J., Besson, M., & Holcomb, P. J. (1998). Processing syntactic relations in language and music: An event-related potential study. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 10(6), 717–733. https://doi.org/10.1162/089892998563121 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Patel, A. D., Iversen, J. R., Wassenaar, M., & Hagoort, P. (2008). Musical syntactic processing in agrammatic Broca’s aphasia. Aphasiology, 22(7–8), 776–789. https://doi.org/10.1080/02687030701803804 CrossRef Google Scholar

Patel, A. D., Peretz, I., Tramo, M., & Labreque, R. (1998). Processing prosodic and musical patterns: A neuropsychological investigation. Brain and Language, 61(1), 123–144. https://doi.org/10.1006/brln.1997.1862 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Paulmann, S., & Uskul, A. K. (2014). Cross-cultural emotional prosody recognition: Evidence from Chinese and British listeners. Cognition and Emotion, 28(2), 230–244. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2013.812033 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Peelle, J. E., & Davis, M. H. (2012). Neural oscillations carry speech rhythm through to comprehension. Frontiers in Psychology, 3. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00320 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Penfield, W. (1965). Conditioning the uncommitted cortex for language learning. Brain, 88(4), 787–798.10.1093/brain/88.4.787CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Perani, D., Dehaene, S., Grassi, F., Cohen, L., Cappa, S. F., Dupoux, E., … & Mehler, J. (1996). Brain processing of native and foreign languages. NeuroReport – International Journal for Rapid Communications of Research in Neuroscience, 7(15), 2439–2444.10.1097/00001756-199611040-00007CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Peretz, I., & Hyde, K. L. (2003). What is specific to music processing? Insights from congenital amusia. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7(8), 362–367. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00150-5 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Peretz, I., Kolinsky, R., Tramo, M., Labrecque, R., Hublet, C., Demeurisse, G., & Belleville, S. (1994). Functional dissociations following bilateral lesions of auditory cortex. Brain, 117(6), 1283–1301. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/117.6.1283 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Peretz, I., Saffran, J., Schön, D., & Gosselin, N. (2012). Statistical learning of speech, not music, in congenital amusia. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1252(1), 361–366. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06429.x CrossRef Google Scholar

Perniss, P., Thompson, R. L., & Vigliocco, G. (2010). Iconicity as a general property of language: Evidence from spoken and signed languages. Frontiers in Psychology, 1. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2010.00227 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Perruchet, P., & Poulin-Charronnat, B. (2013). Challenging prior evidence for a shared syntactic processor for language and music. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 20(2), 310–317. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-012-0344-5 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Pichon, S., & Kell, C. A. (2013). Affective and sensorimotor components of emotional prosody generation. The Journal of Neuroscience, 33(4), 1640–1650. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3530-12.2013 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Pinker, S. (1997). Words and rules in the human brain. Nature, 387(6633), 547–548. https://doi.org/10.1038/42347 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Pinker, S. (1999). How the Mind Works (1. publ). Norton.Google Scholar PubMed

Pinker, S., & Jackendoff, R. (2005). The faculty of language: What’s special about it? Cognition, 95(2), 201–236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2004.08.004 CrossRef Google Scholar

Querleu, D., Renard, X., Versyp, F., Paris-Delrue, L., & Crèpin, G. (1988). Fetal hearing. European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology, 28(3), 191–212. https://doi.org/10.1016/0028-2243(88)90030-5 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Ramachandran, V. S., & Hubbard, E. M. (2001). Synaesthesia: A window into perception, thought and language. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 8(12), 3–34.Google Scholar

Rivera-Gaxiola, M., Silva-Pereyra, J., & Kuhl, P. K. (2005). Brain potentials to native and non-native speech contrasts in 7- and 11-month-old American infants. Developmental Science, 8(2), 162–172. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2005.00403.x CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Romberg, A. R., & Saffran, J. R. (2010). Statistical learning and language acquisition. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science, 1(6), 906–914. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcs.78 Google Scholar PubMed

Saffran, J. R. (2001). Words in a sea of sounds: The output of infant statistical learning. Cognition, 81(2), 149–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-0277(01)00132-9 CrossRef Google Scholar

Saffran, J. R. (2003). Musical learning and language development. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 999(1), 397–401. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1284.050 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Saffran, J. R., Aslin, R. N., & Newport, E. L. (1996a). Statistical learning by 8-month-old infants. Science, 274(5294), 1926–1928. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.274.5294.1926 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Saffran, J. R., Johnson, E. K., Aslin, R. N., & Newport, E. L. (1999). Statistical learning of tone sequences by human infants and adults. Cognition, 70(1), 27–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-0277(98)00075-4 CrossRef Google Scholar

Saffran, J. R., & Kirkham, N. Z. (2018). Infant statistical learning. Annual Review of Psychology, 69, 181–203. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-122216-011805 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Saffran, J. R., Newport, E. L., & Aslin, R. N. (1996b). Word segmentation: The role of distributional cues. Journal of Memory and Language, 35(4), 606–621. https://doi.org/10.1006/jmla.1996.0032 CrossRef Google Scholar

Scherer, K. R. (1995). Expression of emotion in voice and music. Journal of Voice, 9(3), 235–248. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0892-1997(05)80231-0 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Shepherd, J., & Wicke, P. (1997). Music and Cultural Theory. Polity Press.Google Scholar

Shintel, H., Nusbaum, H. C., & Okrent, A. (2006). Analog acoustic expression in speech communication. Journal of Memory and Language, 55(2), 167–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2006.03.002 CrossRef Google Scholar

Sidhu, D. M., Westbury, C., Hollis, G., & Pexman, P. M. (2021). Sound symbolism shapes the English language: The maluma/takete effect in English nouns. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 28(4), 1390–1398. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-021-01883-3 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Siegelman, N., Bogaerts, L., Elazar, A., Arciuli, J., & Frost, R. (2018). Linguistic entrenchment: Prior knowledge impacts statistical learning performance. Cognition, 177, 198–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2018.04.011 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Silvén, M., Voeten, M., Kouvo, A., & Lundén, M. (2014). Speech perception and vocabulary growth: A longitudinal study of Finnish-Russian bilinguals and Finnish monolinguals from infancy to three years. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 38(4), 323–332. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025414533748 CrossRef Google Scholar

Slevc, L. R., & Patel, A. D. (2011). Meaning in music and language: Three key differences. Physics of Life Reviews, 8(2), 110–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plrev.2011.05.003 Google Scholar PubMed

Slevc, L. R., Rosenberg, J. C., & Patel, A. D. (2009). Making psycholinguistics musical: Self-paced reading time evidence for shared processing of linguistic and musical syntax. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 16(2), 374–381. https://doi.org/10.3758/16.2.374 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Smit, E. A., Milne, A. J., Sarvasy, H. S., & Dean, R. T. (2022). Emotional responses in Papua New Guinea show negligible evidence for a universal effect of major versus minor music. PLoS ONE, 17(6), e0269597. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0269597 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Smith, Z. M., Delgutte, B., & Oxenham, A. J. (2002). Chimaeric sounds reveal dichotomies in auditory perception. Nature, 416(6876), 87–90. https://doi.org/10.1038/416087a CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Sohail, J., & Johnson, E. K. (2016). How transitional probabilities and the edge effect contribute to listeners’ phonological bootstrapping success. Language Learning and Development, 12(2), 105–115. https://doi.org/10.1080/15475441.2015.1073153 CrossRef Google Scholar

Steinbeis, N., Koelsch, S., & Sloboda, J. A. (2006). The role of harmonic expectancy violations in musical emotions: Evidence from subjective, physiological, and neural responses. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 18(8), 1380–1393. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn.2006.18.8.1380 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Strait, D. L., & Kraus, N. (2011). Can you hear me now? Musical training shapes functional brain networks for selective auditory attention and hearing speech in noise. Frontiers in Psychology, 2, 113. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00113 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Strait, D. L., Kraus, N., Skoe, E., & Ashley, R. (2009). Musical experience and neural efficiency – effects of training on subcortical processing of vocal expressions of emotion. European Journal of Neuroscience, 29(3), 661–668. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-9568.2009.06617.x CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Stromswold, K., Caplan, D., Alpert, N., & Rauch, S. (1996). Localization of syntactic comprehension by positron emission tomography. Brain and Language, 52(3), 452–473. https://doi.org/10.1006/brln.1996.0024 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Swaminathan, S., & Schellenberg, E. G. (2019). Music training and cognitive abilities: Associations, causes, and consequences. In Thaut, M. H. & Hodges, D. A. (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Music and the Brain (pp. 644–670). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198804123.013.26 Google Scholar

Swaminathan, S., & Schellenberg, E. G. (2020). Musical ability, music training, and language ability in childhood. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 46(12), 2340–2348. https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0000798 Google Scholar PubMed

Swingley, D. (2005). Statistical clustering and the contents of the infant vocabulary. Cognitive Psychology, 50(1), 86–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogpsych.2004.06.001 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Tervaniemi, M., & Hugdahl, K. (2003). Lateralization of auditory-cortex functions. Brain Research Reviews, 43(3), 231–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainresrev.2003.08.004 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Thompson, W. F., Marin, M. M., & Stewart, L. (2012). Reduced sensitivity to emotional prosody in congenital amusia rekindles the musical protolanguage hypothesis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(46), 19027–19032. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1210344109 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Tierney, A., Dick, F., Deutsch, D., & Sereno, M. (2013). Speech versus song: Multiple pitch-sensitive areas revealed by a naturally occurring musical illusion. Cerebral Cortex, 23(2), 249–254. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhs003 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Tillmann, B., Bharucha, J. J., & Bigand, E. (2000). Implicit learning of tonality: A self-organizing approach. Psychological Review, 107(4), 885. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.107.4.885 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Tillmann, B., Janata, P., & Bharucha, J. J. (2003). Activation of the inferior frontal cortex in musical priming. Cognitive Brain Research, 16(2), 145–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0926-6410(02)00245-8 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Tremblay, P., & Dick, A. S. (2016). Broca and Wernicke are dead, or moving past the classic model of language neurobiology. Brain and Language, 162, 60–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2016.08.004 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Tsang, C. D., & Conrad, N. J. (2011). Music training and reading readiness. Music Perception, 29(2), 157–163. https://doi.org/10.1525/mp.2011.29.2.157 CrossRef Google Scholar

Turk, M., Turk, I., & Otte, M. (2020). The neanderthal musical instrument from Divje Babe I Cave (Slovenia): A critical review of the discussion. Applied Sciences, 10(4), 1226. https://doi.org/10.3390/app10041226 CrossRef Google Scholar

Uddin, S., Heald, S. L. M., Van Hedger, S. C., & Nusbaum, H. C. (2018). Hearing sounds as words: Neural responses to environmental sounds in the context of fluent speech. Brain and Language, 179, 51–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2018.02.004 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Van Hedger, S. C., Heald, S. L. M., & Nusbaum, H. C. (2019). Absolute pitch can be learned by some adults. PLoS ONE, 14(9), e0223047. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0223047 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Van Hedger, S. C., Johnsrude, I. S., & Batterink, L. J. (2022). Musical instrument familiarity affects statistical learning of tone sequences. Cognition, 218, 104949. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2021.104949 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Vasuki, P. R. M., Sharma, M., Demuth, K., & Arciuli, J. (2016). Musicians’ edge: A comparison of auditory processing, cognitive abilities and statistical learning. Hearing Research, 342, 112–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heares.2016.10.008 CrossRef Google Scholar

Vasuki, P. R. M., Sharma, M., Ibrahim, R., & Arciuli, J. (2017). Statistical learning and auditory processing in children with music training: An ERP study. Clinical Neurophysiology, 128(7), 1270–1281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2017.04.010 CrossRef Google Scholar

Wacewicz, S., & Żywiczyński, P. (2015). Language evolution: Why Hockett’s design features are a non-starter. Biosemiotics, 8(1), 29–46. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12304-014-9203-2 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Walker, P., Bremner, J. G., Mason, U., Spring, J., Mattock, K., Slater, A., & Johnson, S. P. (2010). Preverbal infants’ sensitivity to synaesthetic cross-modality correspondences. Psychological Science, 21(1), 21–25. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797609354734 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Weiss, M. W., & Bidelman, G. M. (2015). Listening to the brainstem: Musicianship enhances intelligibility of subcortical representations for speech. Journal of Neuroscience, 35(4), 1687–1691. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3680-14.2015 CrossRef Google Scholar

Werker, J. F., & Tees, R. C. (1984). Cross-language speech perception: Evidence for perceptual reorganization during the first year of life. Infant Behavior and Development, 7(1), 49–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0163-6383(84)80022-3 CrossRef Google Scholar

White, E. J., Hutka, S. A., Williams, L. J., & Moreno, S. (2013). Learning, neural plasticity and sensitive periods: Implications for language acquisition, music training and transfer across the lifespan. Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience, 7, 90. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnsys.2013.00090 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Wong, Y. K., Lui, K. F. H., Yip, K. H. M., & Wong, A. C.-N. (2020). Is it impossible to acquire absolute pitch in adulthood? Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 82(3), 1407–1430. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13414-019-01869-3 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Yetkin, O., Yetkin, F. Z., Haughton, V. M., & Cox, R. W. (1996). Use of functional MR to map language in multilingual volunteers. American Journal of Neuroradiology, 17(3), 473–477.Google Scholar PubMed

Yumoto, M., Uno, A., Itoh, K., Karino, S., Saitoh, O., Kaneko, Y., … & Kaga, K. (2005). Audiovisual phonological mismatch produces early negativity in auditory cortex. Neuroreport, 16(8), 803–806.10.1097/00001756-200505310-00005CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Zatorre, R. J., & Baum, S. R. (2012). Musical melody and speech intonation: Singing a different tune. PLOS Biology, 10(7), e1001372. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001372 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Zatorre, R. J., Belin, P., & Penhune, V. B. (2002). Structure and function of auditory cortex: Music and speech. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6(1), 37–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01816-7 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Zatorre, R. J., Evans, A., Meyer, E., & Gjedde, A. (1992). Lateralization of phonetic and pitch discrimination in speech processing. Science, 256(5058), 846–849. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1589767 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Zhao, T. C., & Kuhl, P. K. (2016). Musical intervention enhances infants’ neural processing of temporal structure in music and speech. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(19), 5212–5217. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1603984113 CrossRef Google Scholar PubMed

Zhao, T. C., Llanos, F., Chandrasekaran, B., & Kuhl, P. K. (2022). Language experience during the sensitive period narrows infants’ sensory encoding of lexical tones: Music intervention reverses it. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 16, 941853. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2022.941853 CrossRef Google Scholar

Accessibility standard: WCAG 2.2 AAA

Why this information is here

This section outlines the accessibility features of this content - including support for screen readers, full keyboard navigation and high-contrast display options. This may not be relevant for you.

Accessibility Information

The PDF of this book complies with version 2.2 of the Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG), offering more comprehensive accessibility measures for a broad range of users and attains the highest (AAA) level of WCAG compliance, optimising the user experience by meeting the most extensive accessibility guidelines.

Content Navigation

Table of contents navigation
Allows you to navigate directly to chapters, sections, or non‐text items through a linked table of contents, reducing the need for extensive scrolling.

Index navigation
Provides an interactive index, letting you go straight to where a term or subject appears in the text without manual searching.

Reading Order & Textual Equivalents

Single logical reading order
You will encounter all content (including footnotes, captions, etc.) in a clear, sequential flow, making it easier to follow with assistive tools like screen readers.

Short alternative textual descriptions
You get concise descriptions (for images, charts, or media clips), ensuring you do not miss crucial information when visual or audio elements are not accessible.

Full alternative textual descriptions
You get more than just short alt text: you have comprehensive text equivalents, transcripts, captions, or audio descriptions for substantial non‐text content, which is especially helpful for complex visuals or multimedia.

Visual Accessibility

Use of colour is not sole means of conveying information
You will still understand key ideas or prompts without relying solely on colour, which is especially helpful if you have colour vision deficiencies.

Use of high contrast between text and background colour
You benefit from high‐contrast text, which improves legibility if you have low vision or if you are reading in less‐than‐ideal lighting conditions.