The cataclysm of World War I shook European academic culture: How could European culture have produced such barbarity? The greatest scientific culture the world had ever seen had used science and technology for catastrophically inhumane purposes. Cultural pessimism and nihilism were options that many took. Other academically inclined Europeans responded by rethinking the place of history and philosophy of science in academic and social life. Some of these new projects, such as George Sarton’s New Humanism, explicitly linked them to humanism. In others, such as the logical empiricism that developed in Vienna and Berlin, the connections to humanism were more implicit but no less real. This chapter considers some of the main themes of Sarton’s New Humanist history of science and Rudolf Carnap’s and Hans Reichenbach’s logical empiricism as they relate to questions of the unity of knowledge, the unity of humanity, and the responsible use of scientific knowledge.

Climate and landforms are intimately tied together. Indeed, much of geomorphology is concerned with how landforms, climate, and other surficial processes (like erosion) interact. Landforms are often studied to understand past climates, and vice versa. Thus, a complete understanding of landform genesis requires knowledge of past climates, generally termed paleoclimate.

Climate can be viewed as the prevailing weather/atmospheric conditions for a site, but over long timescales. If a geomorphologist was interested in how sand dunes in a modern desert migrate, they might look at climate over the last few decades. However, a geomorphologist interested in the origin and evolution of the entire desert would need to examine climate over tens of thousands, or even millions, of years. Thus, climate is a somewhat slippery concept, especially when one considers that climate is always changing.

In this chapter, I observe that some cognitive film theorists appear to have uncritically accepted basic emotions theory in their approach to cinematic expressive depiction. Instead, I argue that the theory of constructed emotion, in which emotional concepts are socially constructed categorizations of affect, better fits the available empirical data and presents greater opportunities for productive interdisciplinary synthesis. First, I draw the relevant distinctions between the two theories, noting that the former posits that each basic emotion has a distinct neurophysiological signature and a facial/vocal expression that is universally recognized, whereas the latter permits more complex relationships among brain states, physiological signs, facial movements, and their meaning. Second, I review evidence regarding the brain basis of emotion, cross-cultural research on emotional recognition, and the roles of concepts and words, noting opportunities to place the cognitive neuroscience of emotion in dialogue with philosophy of film. Third, I observe an opportunity for robust interdisciplinary triangulation in the Kuleshov effect, a phenomenon of film editing in which the meaning of a facial expression is thought to change in the context of a montage. Overall, the theory of constructed emotion might draw greater attention of experimentalists to questions of cultural relativity and historical specificity.

The year 1992 marked political shifts in both Israel and the US, as the loan guarantee dispute deepened tensions in US-Israel relations. The Bush administration continued to tie financial aid for absorbing Soviet Jewish immigrants to a freeze on Israeli settlement construction - a condition Prime Minister Yitzhak Shamir firmly rejected. The dispute became central in both countries’ political discourse, shaping the June Israeli elections and the US presidential race in November. Shamir’s defeat by Yitzhak Rabin signaled a policy shift, as Labour leaders were more open to US cooperation on the peace process. Meanwhile, President Bush’s failure to gain substantial Jewish support contributed to his loss to Bill Clinton. This chapter explores how the loan guarantee debate reflected deeper ideological and strategic divides, and how the Bush administration tried to balance security ties with political pressure. It also examines the role of American Jewish organizations in shaping public discourse and considers the long-term effects of this turbulent period on US-Israel relations.

Sebastián MachadoThe activities of international organizations have been traditionally analysed through categories which rely on classical notions of subjectivity and contractual relativity. International organizations, however, routinely engage the world beyond their own internal structure through a variety of actions. This presents a choice for their theorization, as we can characterize the relationship in ways that go beyond conventional legal types and can include broader themes such as markets, effects or costs and benefits. Within this context, this chapter takes the World Health Organization’s handling of the A1H1 Pandemic as a case-study for a (re)conceptualization that can account for the political economy of international institutional decision-making. While this opens up some research possibilities and brings the cost-and-benefit redistribution to the forefront, the reality is that international organizations have a powerful capacity to affect third parties even through non-conventional and unpredictable ways. The organization’s officials regularly engage in a balancing act where institutional activity must be seen to fit within their mission. Considering the sensibility of the different external and relevant markets, this chapter concludes by suggesting that international organizations and their officials must remain highly aware of their redistributive potential.

Water, in all its forms, is the most important agent responsible for shaping the landscape. Some water is at the surface in rivers and lakes (surface water), but much of it eventually penetrates underground. Groundwater, present in the pore spaces of soil, regolith, and bedrock, plays a fundamental role in our lives, and (a focus of this chapter) in the dissolution of bedrock, which is perhaps the most important geomorphic effect of groundwater. Because all rocks are at least partially soluble, parts (or all) of them will dissolve and go into solution when exposed to water and its associated acids – the essence of dissolution (Fig. 12.1).

Chapter 4 traces the development of states in early modern Europe by revisiting Charles Tilly’s bellicist theory of how war and state formation interacted to reduce the number of states in Europe through persistent warfare. Focusing on state formation before the French Revolution, the chapter sets up a historical baseline that prepares the ground for our analysis of how nationalism affects state borders. Analyzing the external aspects of Tilly’s theory, we reformulate it as observable propositions that are tested systematically with geocoded data on state borders and interstate wars from 1490 through 1790. Proceeding at the systemic, state, and dyadic levels, our analysis confirms that warfare played a crucial role in the territorial expansion of European states, with power differentials increasing the chance of war, which let large states grow ever larger through conquest. Small states disappeared in the process, which in turn increased the average size of states.

This chapter summarizes the main findings, arguments, and contributions of the book. It reviews the theoretical arguments and discusses promising avenues for further research on revolution and counterrevolution. Then it explains how the book’s findings speak to a number of scholarly and public debates. First, for scholars of violence and nonviolence, who have argued that unarmed civil resistance is more effective at toppling autocrats than armed conflict, the book raises questions about the tenacity of the regimes established through these nonviolent movements. Second, it speaks to scholarship on democratization, highlighting the important differences between transitions effected through elite pacts versus those brought about through revolutionary mobilization. Third, it offers lessons about how foreign powers can help or hinder the consolidation of new democracies. Next, the chapter discusses implications for Egypt and the broader Middle East, including the possibility that future revolutions might avoid the disappointing fates of the 2011 revolutions. The chapter ends by reflecting on what the book has to say about our current historical moment, when rising rates of counterrevolution appear to be only one manifestation of a broader resurgence of authoritarian populism and reactionary politics worldwide.

This chapter gives an overview of dictionaries, broadly conceived to include monolingual and bilingual wordlists for readers at all levels, in the history of English from the beginnings of Anglo-Saxon literacy to the present day. It argues against a reductive view of dictionaries as primarily agents of standardisation and authority, expressions of the ‘dismal sacred word’. Its arrangement is roughly chronological, beginning with Anglo-Saxon glossography and the lexicography of later medieval English, before turning to the bilingual and monolingual English dictionaries of the early modern period; to the monolingual dictionaries of the eighteenth century; and to the relationship of lexicography to two very important aspects of Late Modern English, namely its pluricentricity and its use as an acquired language. It concludes with a last look at the relationship of English lexicography with the ‘dismal sacred word’.

Glaciers are perennial bodies of ice and snow whose movement is driven by gravity. They vary greatly in size and morphology; most glaciers cover small areas of a mountain slope, while the largest glaciers cover entire continents! Glaciers interact with the lithosphere as they erode their beds, depressing the land below them as they grow, and allowing the lithosphere to rebound as they shrink. Along the way, glaciers are effective agents of rock weathering, erosion, transport, and deposition, and important sources of water.

Glaciers add to the natural beauty of mountain and continental landscapes, both in currently glaciated landscapes and in relict landscapes formed during past ice ages. Nonetheless, their ice and water can also pose deadly hazards.

Glacial systems include the glacier and its adjacent lakes, streams, and landscapes – a system that is also closely linked to the atmosphere.

Ice sheets have dramatically shaped the landscape across the northern regions of North America and Europe. Ice sheets are so vast that they are sometimes referred to as continental glaciers. Their deposits have directly influenced human history by rerouting river systems and by providing nutrient-rich parent materials for soils. Abundant lakes and rivers, many of which were newly formed by the ice, became early transportation arteries and supplied aquatic resources to early cultures. Indirectly, glacial sediments were transported by wind to form thick and extensive blankets of loess – home to many of the world’s best soils. Ice sheets reduced the overall relief of the landscape, as valleys were widened and filled, providing for ease of transportation, growth of agriculture, and the rise of civilizations.

In this chapter we study the idealised, inviscid fluid. The central formula is Bernoulli’s equation, and its consequences are explored in a number of examples. Next we look at flow which is irrotational (vortex free) and develop potential theory, which in two dimensions can be treated very elegantly using complex analysis and the Cauchy–Riemann equations.

The initial-value problem for the linearized field equations is developed.

This chapter is mostly about solid mechanics: Cauchy stress, finite and infinitesimal strain, rotation. Velocity and acceleration are developed in both inertial and non-inertial fames. This is central to the education of the physicist and engineer, but the development leads to a derivation of the Navier–Stokes equations, which are central to fluid dynamics.

Reviews the following criterial tasks often used in conversation memory studies: free recall, recognition memory, cued recall, joint recall, delay intervals, dialogue reorganization, and online processing.