We introduce solutions to the diffusion equation (Fick’s second law), which arises from Fick’s first law and continuity. Diffusion into semi-infinite half spaces as well as problems in finite spaces and the approach to equilibrium are addressed and solutions are given. The second part of the chapter describes fundamental, atomic scale aspects of diffusion in the solid state.

After the First World War, the nations of Europe faced exchange-rate volatility, high national debts, and inflationary pressures. In response, many sought to stabilize the economies through extensive fiscal and monetary reforms. One of the key figures in the reconstruction effort was Henry Strakosch. As the Bank’s informal adviser, he was responsible for devising restructuring plans across Central Europe and the British Empire. Leveraging his connections at the League of Nations, the Bank of England, and the City of London, Strakosch led negotiations that resulted in the establishment of both the Austrian National Bank and the South African Reserve Bank. His work exemplified the institutionalization of economic orthodoxy in circles of influence and heralded the rise of the international financial expert. More broadly, Strakosch’s interventions contributed to the state-building process in the interwar years, as new nations drew on expert knowledge to establish their political legitimacy.

This chapter surveys stability, variation, and change in the mechanisms, functions and frequency of speech representation across the history of English. Attention is paid to speech representation expressions (e.g. they said) and ‘speech descriptors’ (they said confidently), speech representation cues (e.g. quotation marks and ‘perspective shifters’ such as discourse markers), speech representation categories (e.g. direct speech They said ‘We will come!’ versus indirect speech They said that they will come), and generic and sociopragmatic functions of speech representation (e.g. dramatisation). The chapter also explores the development of the speech representation verbs murmur, mutter and whisper in Late Modern English as an illustration of the gradual development and integration of an increasing number of speech representation resources over time.

By providing an overview of the varied shorter fictions produced by key Bloomsbury group members, this essay touches on some significant short fiction writers among its outer circles. Virginia Woolf’s shorter fiction features prominently; the chapter conveys the volume and variety of the short fictions that she produced – though rarely published – during her lifetime. It also gives due attention to Woolf’s husband Leonard’s overlooked experiments with fiction, including his “Three Jews,” which was published with Virginia’s “The Mark on the Wall” as Two Stories (1917), their Hogarth Press’ first publication. Within E. M. Forster’s significant short fiction output, particular attention is paid to works published – like his radical novel of homosexual awakening Maurice – after his death. The chapter takes in some early stories by Mulk Raj Anand, the prolific Indian writer associated with Bloomsbury through Forster, and gives a flavor of the enormous variety in lesser known stories by core group members such as Desmond MacCarthy, David Garnett, and Lytton Strachey – encompassing ghost stories, speculative queer fictions, Jamesian social commentaries, and allegorical flights of fancy.

China has always had a space in the British imagination. Beginning in the eighteenth century, images and the aesthetic of China were a part of daily life – the glint of a blue and white willow teacup, a fan or screen with a Chinese landscape, a silk dress with a pagoda pattern, a rock garden. This new aesthetic flourished alongside the pragmatic reality that China was an imperial space for trade and exploitation by England. Though the aesthetic and transnational crossings were heralded by art historian, Roger Fry, and others in Bloomsbury in the 1920–30s, the transnational conversation has been neglected in modernist scholarship until recently. This chapter addresses the gap and describes a resurgence of interest in the cultural, literary, and aesthetic crossings between England and China through a specific study of the literary Crescent Moon group in China founded by Xu Zhimo in 1925 and Bloomsbury. Extensive study in British and Chinese libraries and travel reveals a transnational modernist discourse and relationships among the two literary groups, including Ling Shuhua, Virginia Woolf, Julian Bell, Xu Zhimo, and Xiao Qian, as well as several other British and Chinese intellectuals and artists.

This chapter sets the tone for the volume, by demonstrating that international organizations law has traditionally been constructed around the fundamental assumption that the only legally relevant dynamic is the relationship between the organization and its member states. The law, in other words, has grown up in a vacuum, illustrated by the absence of clauses granting international organizations legal personality under international law (until well into the second half of the twentieth century) and illustrated by the absence of explicit treaty-making competences. International organizations were never expected to interact with others than their own member states; as a result, today’s international organizations law has a hard time accommodating third parties.

Our focus on digital interaction in the history of English foregrounds the mutually transformative relationship between language and society, with technological affordances enabling (new) forms of social interaction, whilst impeding or remediating (older) communication practices. Early internet forum users maximised meaning-making with available linguistic resources, including pre-digital typographical and respelling practices. Today, within the diversity of digital Englishes, strategies typical of early digital interaction remain, reconfigured for users’ local language ideologies and community norms and expanded to incorporate multilingual practices and new semiotic modes. This chapter explores the sociopragmatic practices of identity and belonging across the digital age, from Usenet in the 1980s and SMS in the 2000s to Twitter in the 2020s, detailing a complex interplay between new communicative opportunities and long-established sociopragmatic practices originating offline. Our analysis points to a diversification of English-using internet users and an expansion of multilingual, multimodal repertoires which prompt a revisiting of traditional sociolinguistic conceptions of English.

Examines gender and race/ethnicity related to conversation memory.

Whenever we interact with technology, we are constantly providing data about who we are, what we think, and the choices we make. One of the major goals of this chapter is to help the reader think creatively about what data is being recorded that can be used to answer important psychological questions. First, we tell the story of a collaboration between a mobile game and psychology researchers that enabled new insights into visual attention. The chapter then provides analysis of what apps can record from us, and principles of user interface / user experience design that can inform psychological research. The chapter discusses other examples of psychological insight from apps and websites, including those related to romantic relationships, navigation and memory, concept representations, and games. Finally, the chapter provides advice on establishing academic-industry collaborations, as well as some words of caution on over-interpreting cognitive effects found in apps and games.

We need the help of the sciences now more than ever, what with the various coronavirus pandemics and other global diseases; repeated economic downturns; environmental pollution and global warming; racial, ethnic, and other sources of social unrest; and much, much more. And yet, the sciences these days are suffering from their own set of problems and have even contributed in significant measure to many of these problems that now beset us. Are the sciences, therefore, up to the job we need done right now, or can they be helped to be up to that job, and if so, how? These are serious issues that a socially relevant science studies should take up. What might be philosophy of science’s role in that endeavor? This chapter focuses on three problems that are especially prominent in US science: the “war on science” waged for decades by influential Republicans, corporate interests, fundamentalist Christians, and even some scientists; the “perverse incentives” and nonincentives also infecting U.S. science; and the racial and ethnic biases widespread there as well. The role the chapter sees for philosophy of science to deal with these problems involves three projects – a prevention project, a rectification project, and a celebration project.

Soil means different things to different people. To a gardener, it is a medium for plant growth. To a civil engineer, it is a type of foundational material, or perhaps something to backfill around a house or in a septic drain field. To a hydrologist, soil functions as a source of water purification and supply. To some geologists, it is the overburden that buried all the rocks! But to geomorphologists and pedologists (pedology is the study of soils), soil comprises both organic and/or mineral materials, normally at the surface, that have been altered by biological, chemical, and/or physical processes. Another recent definition stresses the importance of biota in soil formation, defining soil as the “biologically excited layer” of Earth’s crust.

Performing the analysis: a series of designed steps ensuring you are entering the correct information into the model. A useful convention to code dichotomous variables: assign “1” to presence and “0” to absence of condition; the variable’s mean will be equal to the condition’s prevalence. The reference group choice will not affect results but will affect how results are reported. Choose your reference category based on the main hypothesis. Interaction terms are entered by creating a product term: a variable whose value is the product of two independent variables. For proportional hazards or other survival time, enter: starting time, outcome of interest’s date, censor date.

Variable selection techniques: automatic procedures determining which independent variables will be included in a model. It is usually better for the investigator to decide what variables should be in the model rather than using a statistical algorithm.

Working with a biostatistician should be an iterative process. Especially with complicated studies, consult them at each analysis phase. For conducting the analysis, use the stat package your research group uses so you will always be able to get help when needed.

Industrial stagnation sparked new discussions about the relationship between the state and the economy. The economic slump compelled Henry Clay, a professor of economics at the University of Manchester, to develop theories on unemployment and wages. Alongside leading academics, including Edwin Cannan, Arthur Pigou, and John Maynard Keynes, Clay reconceptualized the role of the central bank in industrial affairs. His ideas attracted the attention of Bank officials, who subsequently employed him to lead new initiatives, such as Securities Management Trust. The closure of unproductive firms and the provision of loans to failing businesses represented the Bank’s concerted efforts to revitalize Britain’s industrial sector.