Becoming a proficient reader in a new or second language (L2) is a complex process because it requires combining reading resources of both L1 and L2 into a dual-language processing system. Thus, L2 learners need support to overcome linguistic and processing practice limitations to read in a language in which they have yet to become proficient. As new technologies flourish, tools for learners and educators also increase. This chapter describes the background and historical perspectives of applying computer technologies to teaching and learning reading in L2. It then presents a survey of major CALL journals for current research and practices using technologies for L2 reading. Based on the survey findings, the chapter provides suggestions for effective integration of technologies into L2 reading teaching and learning vocabulary and reading comprehension, strategic reading, reading fluency and extensive reading, and motivation. Finally, future directions for applying technologies to teaching and learning L2 reading are discussed.

This chapter draws on digital media created in and for the Australian context to show how dimensions of interculturality as a process can be manifested in contexts of teaching and learning through the creation and playing of Indigenous cultural games. It outlines four cultural design approaches that not only bring into creation interculturally produced digital media that students can engage in but are also exceptional exemplars of digital media that engage students in developing their own intercultural understandings through exploration and discussion with educators and peers. Through these examples, the chapter aims to show (1) the importance of understanding “culture” or the “intercultural” as dynamic and relational, not as something that is pre-established and “out there”; and (2) the affordances and constraints of digital technologies in engaging teachers and learners in experiencing interculturality.

Virtual exchange is an umbrella term that covers the different ways in which students are brought into collaborative learning projects with international partners in a structured way. It is widely used in foreign language education to develop students’ linguistic, intercultural, and soft skills. Like many themes related to technology, both the terminology used to refer to it and the practice itself have evolved and transformed rapidly. Proof of this is the number of different models of VE with their particular characteristics that have come into existence in the relatively short history of this pedagogical approach. This chapter looks at how VE has grown in popularity in recent years and what we have learned about its potential for foreign language learning and also how it should be integrated into educational programs. It is noted that interest in VE during the last years has also grown into other fields such as secondary education and teacher training.

Context is a vague, ill-grounded, and multifarious concept. In this chapter we try to provide an overview of the various acceptations in literature and suggest a design-based approach. In this view, four contexts can be defined: the sociocultural context, the educational context, the geotemporal context, and the learning environment. The first three contexts are impossible to change, but they have an impact on the fourth, which needs to be designed. The geotemporal context remains largely underexplored, but it is quite promising given the emergence of new technologies such as (Linked) Open Data.

This chapter addresses pronunciation in second language (L2) learning, which ranges from phoneme-level pronunciation to conversation training. First, the definition of phonemes and their relationship with articulation are explained. Vowels and consonants are classified according to different dimensions. The concept of distinctive features is also described. These provide a basis to model and identify phoneme-level pronunciation errors. Suprasegmental features such as stress and rhythm are also addressed. Next, speech analysis methods are described. While formant analysis is effective for diagnosing the pronunciation of vowels, articulatory attribute detection is explored for comprehensive analysis of all phonemes. The chapter then introduces automatic speech recognition (ASR) technology to detect pronunciation errors. Settings of minimal pairs of words, prompted text, and free input can be designed. ASR models are also used for pronunciation grading. The goodness of pronunciation (GOP) score is computed for each phoneme and aggregated over all phonemes in the utterance. Nonnative speech modeling is crucial for effective L2 pronunciation learning.

Learner training is essential for the realization of the potentials of CALL. It can not only safeguard the smooth implementation of CALL activities and facilitate the concomitant learning, but also enhance learners’ active and effective engagement with technological resources for language learning on their own in the informal learning contexts. This chapter gives an overview of how it is conceptualized and operationalized in existing literature. It argues for greater research attention to learner training in and for informal language learning in technological spaces and in-depth exploration into the intersection of contextual factors and learner training. It further advocates more differentiated and personalized approaches to learner training.

The way in which listening in a second language has been taught and learned has changed dramatically as a result of advances in technology. The evolution of technology over the past several decades has meant that learners have a broad range of authentic materials that can supplement their learning experiences. This chapter briefly explores how technology has altered the ways in which learners listen to the target language, and it goes on to show that these technologies also make it possible to enhance the input through the addition of textual cues or through altering the speed to assist them with comprehension. Along with these changes, the chapter points out the need for training to be able to use the range of technological functions in a way that can support their learning, as well as to make use of various help options and feedback that the technology makes available to them. The chapter goes on to explore the pedagogical and technological perspectives of current research and practice, and then concludes with recommendations for research and practice that can allow teachers and researchers to make the most of the affordances that technology provides them both now and in the future.

MOOCs for language learning offer opportunities for communication to help develop learners’ productive skills in the target language, but these environments can also be challenging for learners, which may result in a disconnect between promise and reality. The chapter introduces MOOCs and language MOOCs (LMOOCs), considering their purposes and the reasons why learners enrol in LMOOCs. Communication opportunities and challenges in LMOOCs are reviewed, and relevant findings from research and practice are identified. Special consideration is given to the provision of feedback to learners. Fostering speaking among learners has generally been a challenge, due to the scale and openness of LMOOCs. The chapter offers recommendations for research and practice relating to the educator’s role, learners’ autonomy, affordances of communication technology, integration of LMOOCs into classroom practice, and cultural issues in communication. It is also recommended that MOOC providers should work together with educators to provide learners with adequate and innovative technological tools to facilitate their productive skills practice. Future directions are identified, emphasizing scalable methods of analysing learner activity and taking advantage of developments in artificial intelligence, including ways of supporting learners through interactions with conversational agents.

Educators have always harnessed the power of ludic activities for facilitating learning in low-tech teaching contexts, including for the teaching of foreign and second languages (L2s). Most current research on L2 learning with games has focused on informal (naturalistic) learning, has adopted a technology-centric perspective that prioritizes digital games which are ill-suited for most teaching contexts, and, particularly, has neglected the role of teachers. As teacher mediation is critical for enabling student learning, this chapter surveys work that shows how language teachers can leverage the opportunities inherent in games and play with a view to strengthening the naturalistic learning of their students. We spotlight the key role of the teacher in mediating learners’ language and literacy development, before, during, and after L2 activities through and around games. We also consider how the purposeful use of digital technology around games and play supports both learners and teachers in reaching their goals. We illustrate this through exemplary studies that are grounded in various pedagogies, and utilize both analogue and digital games that can be implemented in real classrooms. In doing so, we give equal importance to tools and technology (ludic materials), language learning goals, and pedagogical rigor.

This chapter focuses on digital collaboration when learning an additional language (L2), a specific type of learner–learner interaction. In CALL contexts, collaboration has almost exclusively been researched in connection with writing, which will be the focus of this chapter. The chapter first provides a definition of collaboration versus cooperation and then a literature review of digital collaboration, mainly in writing contexts. We conclude with a list of strategies for promoting collaboration and suggestions for future collaboration contexts and research.

The use of technology in language learning classrooms depends largely on its availability and accessibility. Language practitioners in the twenty-first century continue to face the issue of digital divide, as some developing countries struggle to provide basic hardware such as computers, projectors, and speakers in every language classroom and rely heavily on the technology they and their students bring to class. This is complicated further when language learning must be done online and remotely, as reliable internet connectivity is required but not always available. Numerous language teachers in these low-tech environments have adopted the low-tech approach by maximizing the affordability of “simple” hardware such as feature phones and “common” tools such as email and mobile applications such as chat apps. They engage in technology literacy, which reaches the level of inventive use of “common” technology that has long been used to bring sound pedagogy to various modes of language learning. The chapter attempts to describe how language is taught in low-tech environments and how an inclusive approach must use technology that assures that no one is excluded. It also describes how the incorporation of simple technology into various modes of language teaching and learning has supported sound language pedagogy through creativity and flexibility.

The issue of whether technology is inherently motivating for learners and teachers has often been discussed in the literature around computers and language learning. Yet, there is more to this relationship than initially meets the eye. This chapter outlines the ways in which symbolic power plays a part in both personal and institutional motivations for the adoption of technology. The chapter also looks at the way motivation is often credited as a key to success, though rarely with much empirical evidence. Finally, the article takes on a practitioner’s viewpoint to share several motivational techniques that can assist with practice and research.

Distance learning has grown in popularity since the beginning of the century, and the affordances of the rapid development of online audiovisual and mobile technologies have made it easier to learn languages at a distance. This chapter defines the concept of distance language learning as learning that is designed to take place when teachers and learners are not together in the same physical space and learning is mostly mediated through technology. It focuses on distance learning that both students and teachers have chosen as their method of delivery, as opposed to an imposition in response to an emergency situation such as the COVID-19 pandemic. The chapter presents a brief history of the evolution of distance language learning, exploring current and past tools, methods, and beliefs in the teaching and assessment of languages in a distance learning context. It also outlines the characteristics of successful distance learners and teachers, as well as some of the challenges they face. It concludes by arguing that the rapid improvement in speech recognition and translation software is likely to transform distance language learning in the near future.

This book has explored a broad variety of ways in which technology can be conceptualized, used, viewed, and researched in the teaching and learning of a second language. This concluding chapter brings together some of the overall trends that the chapters have revealed and explores how technology in second language education can be best capitalized upon for best practice. It also provides insights into how teachers, learners, and administrators can prepare themselves for the advances that are happening in the field, and how these are likely to impact upon research and practice.