Despite the large number of languages spoken in New Zealand, the country does not have a unified national languages policy. Instead, a wide range of separate policies regulate the status and institutionalisation of different languages, which largely depends on which language communities are acknowledged and supported by the government. This chapter provides an overview of such policies that highlights the historical, political, and ideological complexities and disparities in current provisions to support NZ’s official languages (te reo Māori and NZSL), Pasifika languages, and other community-based heritage languages. We conclude with some remarks on the ongoing need for a comprehensive national legislative framework to enable recognition and educational support for all of NZ’s heritage languages.

This overview aims to promote the consolidation of a relatively new field of research – a child’s language-based agency, integrating early childhood education and language learning and teaching in the early years. The chapter describes child language-based agency research conducted in early childhood education settings. It discusses the following characteristics of a child’s language-based agency: beliefs about languages and their learning, active engagement, and avoidance of engagement patterns of agentic behaviour, children’s social strategies leading to language learning and socialisation, children’s positioning as language experts, and the role of peers in child’s agency enactment.

The models of provision for Irish-medium education are examined in this chapter commencing with an overview of the historical context followed by a description of the sociolinguistic background in Ireland. The immersion education models in other jurisdictions with similar sociolinguistic factors to Ireland are then presented. A common feature of these jurisdictions is that students have limited contact with the target language outside the school setting. The efficacy of immersion centres versus immersion streams or tracks is then compared. An account of different models of Irish-medium education is presented in light of this comparison.

This chapter reports on a multi-institutional research programme, with researchers from Australia, Hong Kong, Singapore, Sweden, and the Philippines, investigating English Medium Instruction (EMI) in Asian higher education. In this chapter, we present the findings of empirical research conducted in Cambodia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Singapore, and South Korea, as well as a discussion of the historical contexts and complexities influencing EMI in such contexts. The case studies presented in this chapter provide for the comparison of research results across and between diverse Asian settings, with reference to such issues as the linguistic backgrounds of students, and their experiences of EMI, including language attitudes, communicative practices, language mixing, and perceived difficulties. One interesting pattern in our findings relates to the obvious differences between Outer Circle (‘English as a second language’) and Expanding Circle (‘English as a foreign language’) contexts in the Asian region.

Grammatical theories about bilingual codeswitching aim to define cognitively represented mechanisms which regulate language mixing for bilingual speakers, illuminating grammatical theory as it relates specifically to bilinguals. A related term, translanguaging, similarly denotes language mixing, or dynamic language use, but is often understood to include the deconstructivist supposition that bilingualism itself is a fiction. This chapter reviews the contributions of codeswitching research to the theory of bilingual grammar, supporting the Integrated Multilingual Model (IMM) of bilingualism. The IMM is consistent with a multilingual approach to translanguaging, which rejects deconstructivism and affirms individual multilingualism as socially significant and psychologically real.

This chapter begins with a historical overview of the development of languages in some Latin American countries, in particular, Colombia, Brazil, and Mexico, and focuses on developments in bi- and multilingual education for speakers of majority and minoritised languages in the region. Followed by a discussion about policies and the development of bilingual education for these two groups, there is then a consideration of certain key issues such as globalisation, power relations, ideologies, and native speakerism. The chapter ends with arguments for implementing an integrated model of bi/multilingual education for both majority and minoritised language students.

This chapter gives an overview of (heritage) language education (HLE) in Australia that problematises the boundary between what are traditionally thought of as ‘heritage languages’ and First Nations language on the one hand and Modern Foreign Languages on the other. It begins with an overview of contemporary multilingualism in Australia, and the different groups of learners typically seen in HLE programmes. This gives the reader a sense of the audience for language education programmes and the different take-up rates seen across different communities. Australia has been a global leader in the integration of HLE into the mainstream school curriculum, and in the third section I present the major approaches and policies that have driven this development, as well as key figures on the size and scope of these, programmes – spanning programmes in mainstream schools, government-run after-hours classes and the community sector. The chapter concludes with reflections on what these experiences tell us about successful programme design and the challenges programmes need to address going forward.

Understanding how the brain processes instructional input is relevant to all brains, and ‘productive- literacy’ benefits all learners. To unpack the complexity of CLIL Teacher Preparation, each construct within the ‘CLIL acronym’ is approached vis-à-vis ‘how the brain learns (or not)’. The first section discusses ‘Learning’ in relation to CLIL. The second section considers ‘Content-and-Language’ from the perspective of what our brain has evolved to learn, addressing THE LANGUAGE-DILEMMA OF CONTENT-EDUCATION. The third section foregrounds symbiotic gains when Content/Language-expertise collaborate towards productive-literacy. The fourth section discusses ‘Integration’, first introducing a 2D-CONTENT/LANGUAGE-GRID for gauging cognitive (over)load elicited by both effective and weak CLIL-tasks, before suggesting a 3D-TRANSLANGUAGING-GRID for creating translanguaging tasks designed to harness all available linguistic codes.

Chapter 2 introduces readers to the three interconnected concepts which are key to speechwriters’ practices: 1) frontstage and backstage; 2) participation framework; and 3) production format (Goffman 1959, 1981). Next, Mapes maps the profession of speechwriting, using descriptive analysis to document practitioners’ education and career trajectories, production of deliverables, and day-to-day practices. This is followed by a second analytical section which outlines the rhetorical strategies of invisibility, craft, and virtue. First, Mapes uses interview data to unpack the specifics of invisibility as a point of professional pride and skill, demonstrating how speechwriters understand and even embrace the erasure of their authorship. Second, she documents the constructions of expertise and skill which characterize speechwriters’ craft, and which allow them to claim status as “creatives.” Lastly, Mapes details how virtue features across the dataset, arguing that it is necessarily tied to the cultural indexicalities associated with “impact.” In sum, this chapter sets the groundwork for understanding how speechwriters engage in the status competition characteristic of contemporary capitalism.

In this chapter, we reconstruct the epistemological, political, pedagogical, curricular, and linguistic arguments leading to the emergence of intercomprehension between Romance languages as a multilingual pedagogy in language learning. We thenpresent the arguments put forward to treat English and Romance languages from an integrated perspective, relativising boundaries between those languages and focusing on the multiple possibilities that similarities and contact zones raise. We claim that an integrated teaching and learning of English and Romance languages can be adopted, promoting a multilingual stance in language education and the development of multilingual competence for all.

English Medium Instruction (EMI) is currently being implemented at a number of Korean universities. This paper examines EMI culture in Korean higher education by collecting and analysing a large volume of research papers and news articles on the topic from the last two decades. Specifically, it attempts to elucidate how and why EMI culture in Korean higher education has been associated with such negative perceptions as compulsory, inadequate, ineffective, divisive, unfair, and isolating. This paper makes suggestions for desirable EMI culture that should be pursued in Korean universities and any other institutions with the goal of EMI expansion.