The fortified line known as the ‘Iron Belt’, a significant feature of the Spanish Civil War, was used for propaganda by both sides: the Republicans had blind faith in its ‘resistance’, while the Francoists emphasized its ‘invincibility’ when publicizing its conquest. The myth of the Iron Belt’s impenetrability, which has deeply permeated society, is being challenged by recent archaeological studies that explore this fortified line within the emerging context of Spanish Civil War archaeology. This article presents findings from archaeological interventions in four sectors along this line: Somorrostro, Muskiz, Mount Avril, and Mount Ollargan. Results show the lack of preparation of the Basque Army: the ammunition and the structures unearthed show that it was impossible to defend the line against the military power of the Francoists and air warfare. Today, the Iron Belt endures as a contested and fragile heritage landscape, illustrating how conflict heritage encapsulates societal tensions and unresolved historical legacies.

Sulfur stable isotope ratios (δ34S) have become increasingly common in archaeology for studying paleodiet, especially in occasions where there is a need to identify aquatic resource consumption more accurately. This is particularly relevant in the Baltic Sea region, where brackish conditions tend to mask “typical” marine carbon isotopic signals. Here we report new δ34S values for 126 human bone collagen samples which will be analyzed together with previously published data to investigate the potential of sulfur isotopes as an alternative proxy for aquatic resource consumption in historic period Estonia (ca. AD 1100‒1800). Bayesian statistical programming was used to provide quantitative dietary estimates, suggesting that the diet of the general population was predominantly terrestrial. The inclusion of δ34S as an additional dietary proxy produced generally comparable model results to the scenario that excluded δ34S. A sub-selection of samples was also radiocarbon dated and calibrated to take into account potential reservoir effects. For burials of commoners, the average contribution of 10% fish to dietary carbon does not significantly alter calibrated date ranges, even in the occasion where data on local reservoir effects is insufficient. This study has demonstrated both the potential and the pitfalls of using δ34S in this temporo-spatial context, and the new stable isotope and 14C data have shed light onto individual site-histories but also to broader cultural processes and changes that occurred during these turbulent times in this region.

The extraction of salt from seawater is one of the most direct ways of exploiting the marine environment. In the historic period, the production of salt formed an important component of the global economy. In temperate locations such as Ireland, archaeological evidence of extracting salt from seawater comprises a range of expressions and locations dictated by the energy resource required. This article presents the results of the first archaeological excavations of a saltworks complex in Ireland, at two sites that produced salt from the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries. Partial excavation of a seventeenth-century complex at Ballyreagh Lower revealed a crude structure that was not capable of supplying all of the area’s needs. By contrast, the eighteenth- and nineteenth-century pan site at Broughanlea shows a step-change in scale, efficiency, and infrastructure that reflects new economic networks in a country predominantly relying on agricultural produce.

This article is an exploration of how Christian influences manifested in Indigenous rock art, comparing two distinct case studies: western Arnhem Land in northern Australia and the southern Andes in north-central Chile. The analysis aims to understand the intersection between Indigenous artistic traditions and the introduction of Christianity through European colonization. Our comparative analysis reveals significant regional differences. In western Arnhem Land, the scarcity of Christian imagery suggests resistance to or avoidance of religious symbols, while in north-central Chile, the prevalence of Christian symbols indicates a more profound incorporation of Christianity into Indigenous artistic practices. These findings underscore the importance of considering local contexts and historical processes when examining the impact of colonization on Indigenous art. Understanding these differences provides valuable insights into the complex interactions between Indigenous cultures and European colonizers, revealing resistance and adaptation in the face of profound social and religious changes.

Stone carvings in the context of Ottoman-era Greece play an important role in folklore studies as well as vernacular architecture. They are associated with the history of itinerant stonemasons, their beliefs, as well as the cultural milieu of the building’s owners. However, research rarely contextualises them within the framework of the Ottoman era and the identities of local people who dwelled in these spaces. This contribution first provides an overview of interpretations put forward by scholars in diverse disciplines (folklore, architecture, heritage). It then offers a critical evaluation of these interpretations according to contemporary trends in Ottoman studies, combining methodologies from multiple disciplines, ranging from innovative theoretical concepts to interpretive drawings and photogrammetry. To do so we focus on case studies from the Ottoman-era Bektashi heritage of Konitsa (north-west Greece), including the house of Hussein Sisko, Hamko’s mansion, as well as the gate of Hagios Nikolaos, which incorporates stone carvings from an Ottoman-era mansion in secondary use. We advance an interpretation of stone carvings as narratives reflecting the multiconfessional identities of the liminal Ottoman provinces of the south-west Balkans. Taking as an example the two series of stone carvings from the gates of Hamko’s mansion, we propose that they are best viewed as forms of storytelling, reflecting the identity of the Bektashi owners, as warriors of the faith, while also vaguely expressing the values of the in-house rituals of the same dervish network (tarikat). Furthermore, on the basis of a proposed rearrangement of the stone carvings at the church of Hagios Nikolaos to reflect their original meaning when they were adorning the mansion of Elmaz Bey, we argue for potential multiple and multiconfessional understandings of such carvings, as well as temporal connotations that are easily forgotten, arguments that open new research avenues when placed in the context of the body of literature that argues for the long-lasting survival of meanings.

During the 2016 and 2017 fieldwork seasons at the site of Qijiaping in Guanghe County, Gansu Province, China, the team of the Tao River Archaeology Project excavated a large intact kiln. The kiln is well preserved, and the first of its kind reported in an archaeological excavation in this region. Several lines of evidence demonstrate that this was a roof tile kiln used during the Song period (ad 960–1279), possibly associated with the construction and maintenance of defensive facilities during the time of Northern Song (ad 1079–1127) occupation of the region— an era of conflict with the Western Xia (ad 982–1227). Inside the flues of the kiln were many objects disposed of when the kiln was put out of commission. Among these objects is a stone phallus, an object that reflects a gendered aspect of technology and manufacturing associated with this kiln or its decommissioning and more broadly the gendered social landscape of the Tao River valley during the Northern Song occupation of the region.

Legal, ethical, historical, cultural, and political questions in relation to African cultural heritage are increasingly the focal point of international, regional, and national debates. It is now widely recognized that African cultural disputes – often between African States (or State institutions) on the one hand, and Western States, State institutions and private actors on the other – are ripe for settlement, especially on the basis of law, including international law. This article focuses on international arbitration as a means for resolving African cultural heritage-related disputes and, for the first time analyses the benefits of all types of international arbitration (State-to-State arbitration, investment treaty arbitration and commercial (contract-based) arbitration) from the perspective of African States and actors in relation to the resolution of African cultural heritage disputes, which include disputes regarding the return of African cultural objects. This article examines for the first time the potential role of all types of arbitral proceedings ((i) State-to-State arbitration, (ii) international investment treaty arbitration (or, as often-called, Investor-State Dispute Settlement (ISDS)), and (iii) commercial arbitration) for the resolution of Africa-related cultural heritage disputes.

Alisha Sijapati and Erin Thompson’s article “Making a market for ‘The Art of Nepal’: Tracing the flow of Nepali cultural property into the United States” makes a series of unsubstantiated claims about the nature and scope of the Nepali antiquities market in the 1950s and 1960s based on the authors’ research of a single 1964 exhibition of Nepali antiquities in the United States. This critical response will contest these claims by examining the broader Nepali antiquities market as it existed prior to 1970, particularly within Nepal and in South Asia, while also locating the authors and their claims in the context of the recent repatriation campaign by Nepali activists. Finally, the response will conclude that if there is to be an ethical turn in voluntary repatriation, there must be greater consideration of contexts beyond the West and a refocusing of provenance research beyond Western collectors and institutions.

The central Maya lowlands (CML) display an uncommon demographic history—the absence of a millennial population rebound from its former occupational peak, about 800 CE. Here we postulate why the loss of a well-populated CML during the Late Classic-Terminal Classic periods failed to regain substantial occupation during the subsequent 700-800 years before the Spanish conquest of the Maya realm. Updating the narrative of stressful human-environmental conditions, shifts in trade routes, and long-term paucity of occupation in the CML, we examine push-pull factors that affected Postclassic Maya population geography. These factors include population pressures, environmental hazards, resource conditions, and livelihood standards that existed in the Postclassic Period between northern and coastal lowlands and the CML. The advantages that the CML maintained before Postclassic times, foremost regaining superior environmental conditions for agriculture, were insufficient pull factors given the low levels of push factors in the northern and coastal lowlands. We draw attention to the under-treated problem—the failure of a population rebound in the CML—and encourage improvements in systematic data and analytics to address it, including consideration of non-material, socio-cultural factors.

For American archaeology, ceramic styles have historically played a key role in assigning different regional and temporal cultural traditions. San Francisco is one of the earliest pottery styles in northwestern Argentina (NOA; 2000-1500 BP) and has been considered a chronological marker, as it laid the foundation for the development of other ceramic traditions in the NOA region during the Formative period. It is characterized by polished incised gray pieces, bichrome designs, and zooanthropomorphic or anthropomorphic pipes. Regarding the discovery of San Francisco pottery beyond what is considered its core area—the valley of the same name in the eastern part of Jujuy Province—various interpretations have been proposed over the past three decades. These range from the effective occupation of new territories to the exchange, circulation, or imitation of vessels. Based on the composition of ceramic pastes, this research suggests the existence of specific recipes, allowing for the identification of potential local productions and testing hypotheses about the circulation or non local production of San Francisco pottery. Furthermore, the frequent incorporation of grog (chamote) into the fabric is highlighted, reflecting a cohesive manufacturing tradition that persisted over the centuries.

This article examines the measurement systems used in the built environment of Xochicalco, a significant Epiclassic archaeological site located in Central Mexico. Through careful analysis of the dimensions of the various structures, we identified two primary measurement units: U7 (1.47 m) and U8 (1.68 m). These units exhibit similarities to the Mayan zapal and Nahua maitl, which have been previously documented across diverse temporal contexts and other regions within Mesoamerica. The investigation revealed patterns in the application of these units related to orientation, functionality, and construction methods, indicating meticulous planning and potential symbolic importance. The frequent use of measurements that are multiples of three, four, nine, and twelve times the base units suggests the utilization of standardized measuring instruments. This study enhances our understanding of Mesoamerican measurement practices, particularly at Xochicalco, and provides insights into cultural interactions and construction traditions during the Epiclassic period.

The fields of archaeology and museology are working to encourage and enforce research methodologies and policies that center reciprocity and respect among archaeologists, institutions, and Native Nations. This shift in approach is grounded in part by the inclusion of the Duty of Care clause in the revised NAGPRA regulations and partly by a revised awareness of ethical standards. Policy-level changes around research access are the most impactful but can also be the most challenging to initiate. In this article, we address shifts in both institutional research policies and researchers’ approaches and practices that actively incorporate Native perspectives. The framework presented was developed as a complement to the Indigenous Collections Care Guide and is grounded in case studies from three institutions that have changed their research policies. The resulting prompts, tips, examples, and challenges are provided for both researchers and institutions to evaluate research and access practices and how they intersect with Native perspectives. Seeking input and consent from Native Nations adds challenging layers to research, but the depth, quality, and impact of the research and the strengthening of relationships and trust with the communities significantly outweigh the extra time and effort.

Legacy collections frequently originate from Indigenous archaeological sites with extensive histories of investigation and removal by numerous institutions and individuals. These “split” collections complicate institutional compliance with the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA; 25 U.S.C. § 3001-13) , in part by hindering the identification of cultural items, including associated and unassociated funerary objects. In aligning with the spirit of NAGPRA and following guidance received during consultation with Tribal Nations, institutional NAGPRA practitioners strive to repatriate the Ancestors removed from these locations whole, both in body and cultural items, facilitating a respectful return to living communities. Moreover, collaborating across institutions and in coordination with Tribal Nations has the potential both to lessen the burden on Tribal Nations and minimize repetitive trauma brought about by multiple repatriations of Ancestors and cultural items from the same site. Accomplishment of this repatriation goal often requires cross-institutional collaboration to reconcile these legacy “split collections.” In this article, we present the roadmap developed and used by the University of Wisconsin–Oshkosh and the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee for repatriation with split collections, with some considerations for fruitful interinstitutional collaboration.

In this study, we investigate the impact of X-rays produced by conventional mCT instruments on fossil materials dated by radiocarbon. Our results clearly show a decrease on the collagen preservation in fossil and modern bones and teeth, and therefore on the radiocarbon analytical results (in particular, the collagen yield and, possibly, stable isotope composition), after mCT scanning. In other words, all the samples analysed here have experienced a noticeable radiation damage, regardless of their nature (bone and dental tissue) and age (modern and fossil). Given these observations, a prudent approach would be for radiocarbon laboratories to expect lower collagen yields for samples that have been previously mCT scanned and ensure appropriately sized standards are processed alongside these samples. Additionally, samples with originally low collagen yields might become unsuitable for radiocarbon dating after mCT or at least show a yield lower than the usual minimum cut-off value. In this case, it might be viable to extend the collagen yield quality assurance parameter for mCT scanned bones and teeth and instead focus on the C:N ratio as the most appropriate indicator of collagen quality, although we cannot exclude that the latter may also be impacted by X-ray exposure. Further investigations on a larger set of samples are required to confirm these first observations. Nevertheless, in the light of these results, we can reasonably conclude by recommending caution regarding the systematic and unlimited use of mCT scanning in palaeoanthropology or in other related disciplines involving fossil material.