This chapter describes the market for high-level colonial offices in eighteenth-century Spanish America. It starts by providing an overview of the territorial and institutional organization of the Spanish Empire at the time as well as the positions that constituted the “supply”: their number, rank, and institutional attributes. The rest of the chapter then focuses on the determinants of demand through the analysis of office prices, buyer characteristics, and the profitability of certain positions versus others. Estimates show how, all else equal, positions with greater rank and power as well as those more profitable, drew higher prices on average. It also finds that individuals of higher social status or more connected to the Crown – of military, nobility, or Spanish origin – were heavily “subsidized” to occupy office vis-à-vis those lacking those traits. Altogether, this is consistent with office prices revealing important information about the expected returns of certain positions versus others.

Any modern survey of medieval travel literature whose destination was Compostela, or which mentioned it as a significant waystation, had little to discuss about this small town except as a goal of sacred travel. With the twelfth-century Liber Sancti Jacobi the one stunning exception, pre-Reformation primary sources are essentially preserved in archives outside the Iberian Peninsula. Of the forty-some narratives that report visits to Santiago, nearly all were written by foreigners in foreign vernaculars in manuscripts shelved and nearly forgotten near travelers’ homes. It seems that the consolidation of the Spanish state under Ferdinand and Isabel in the late fifteen century, the stiffening of that nation’s intellectual frontiers, and Spain’s adversarial incursions into European affairs in the sixteenth century coincide with a slow rise in pilgrimage narratives written by native Spaniards. Jacobean pilgrimage contracted. Many foreigners came to despise pilgrimage and largely stopped coming.

This final chapter provides a summary of the theory presented in the book. It outlines the nature of conscience as well as how it might be constrained to protect the interests of others. It then addresses some lingering issues that arise from the theory.

This chapter explores the transformative role of knowledge and technology in Europe’s economic history, with a special focus on the Industrial Revolution. It examines how the transfer of scientific and technological knowledge contributed to economic growth and convergence between European countries. The chapter highlights the role of education, institutional frameworks and innovation in facilitating the diffusion of technology across borders. It also considers the factors that limited convergence, such as disparities in institutional and educational development. By tracing the evolution of technological and scientific advancements, the chapter provides insight into the processes that allowed Europe to lead global economic development during the Industrial Revolution and beyond.

The eighteenth-century Wahhābī movement in central Arabia arose with the aim of combatting the Muslim cult of saints, and in so doing led to the establishment of the Saudi state. An analysis of texts authored by the movement’s founder and eponym, Muḥammad b. ʿAbd al-Wahhāb (d. 1206/1792), demonstrates that he fully adopted the tawḥīd al-ulūhiyya doctrine, together with its attendant terminology and argumentation, from Ibn Taymiyya’s writings. It was due to this doctrine that the early Wahhābīs viewed Muslims who practiced a popular cult of saints as polytheists who must be converted or conquered; in their attempt to do so, the Wahhābīs transformed Ibn Taymiyya’s theoretical and often abstruse polemic into a casus belli with real-world consequences that reverberate to this day. The early Wahhābīs’ intransigent Taymiyyan-based monolatry distinguished them from broader currents of eighteenth-century Muslim revivalism and provided a template for the radical salafī militancy of recent decades.

A new theoretical framework is required to expose how the underlying political economic systems function and drive deforestation. The hypotheses and case studies are presented while situating deforesting processes in the international system and its many subsystems, which are composed of partially interlinked sectors that often compete for the same land areas. This is a detailed political economic analysis, based on regionally situated world-ecological analyses, which consider the power that different sectors have in causing the loss of forests, such as Brazilian ranching speculation, Amazonian gold mining, and Finnish pulp and energywood forestry. The chapter contends that there is a need to cultivate a deeper, comparative, and global crises-situated understanding of the role these forces have in driving deforesting. One must also understand the local-level enabling factors and the role of resistance. Insights are woven together from several disciplines and approaches such as political ecology and world-ecology into a new conceptual framework that can be widely applied to explain global development dynamics, beyond the specific application to deforestation.

This chapter turns to the concert minuet, asking how somatic knowledge of the minuet dance informs engagement with and understanding of this genre. The chapter begins with writings that show eighteenth-century listeners discussing concert minuets in relation to the minuet dance step, as well as eighteenth-century music-theoretical discussions of minuet composition that put forward a view of the concert minuet as the nonconformist version of the dance minuet. Two case studies discuss minuets from Haydn’s ‘London’ Symphonies – Nos. 97 and 102 – which were written around the same period as the dance minuets discussed in the previous chapter, and were also performed in Vienna in the 1790s. These case studies show ways in which Haydn plays with expectations formed by the dance minuet: he subverts the structural norms of minuet composition, as well as manipulating one’s feeling of the dance step. The argument is made that, while traditional forms of analysis tend to seek subversion of expectations as a feature for explication, minuets and somatic enquiry invite us to see artfulness through a different lens.

This chapter explores mediation strategies and discusses the way in which mediation mandates shape mediators’ different strategic choices. A central concern in the mandate for mediation is often to establish a framework for direct contact between the warring parties. This chapter deals with what can be regarded as the core of the mediation process: the strategies that mediators use to persuade the parties to reach an agreement or to facilitate a peaceful way forward. Mandates set some limitations and provide some opportunities in terms of which strategies mediators can use. In this chapter, we look at two strategy crossroads that all mediators face. These concern the order in which the various issues in the conflict are to be dealt with in the mediation, and how active the mediator ought to be in relation to the parties. We discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each of these different choices, and demonstrate the variations in these strategic choices based on the Nordic mediation experience.

This chapter explores the globalization of factor markets, particularly focusing on capital and labour, and how international monetary regimes have influenced these markets throughout European history. It discusses the evolution of capital markets and the role of different monetary systems, such as the gold standard and Bretton Woods, in facilitating cross-border capital mobility. The chapter also examines the impact of migration on labour markets, exploring how the movement of people has shaped economic outcomes in Europe. It highlights the benefits of globalization, such as increased efficiency and economic integration, while also acknowledging the challenges, including inequality and labour market disruptions.

This chapter examines the historical evolution of trade and globalization in Europe, focusing on the forces that have shaped trade patterns over time. It explores the impact of technological advancements, such as improvements in transportation and communication, as well as the influence of political decisions on trade policy, including cycles of protectionism and free trade. The chapter also discusses the economic benefits and challenges of globalization, analysing how trade has contributed to economic growth while also creating winners and losers within and between countries. The chapter argues that while globalization has generally increased economic efficiency, its effects have been unevenly distributed.

This chapter introduces peripheral physiological measures of emotion as important tools for studying emotion in affective neuroscience. It examines responses across three systems: skeletal muscle activity, autonomic nervous system (cardiovascular and electrodermal), and respiration. It surveys measurement modalities, derived metrics, their neural control, timescales of expected response, and prominent findings in recent literature, linking them to central nervous system activity throughout. The chapter concludes by highlighting outstanding questions and future challenges in the field of peripheral physiological measures of emotion.

This chapter examines the development of health services in late Ottoman Palestine. Through the eyes of a French physician living in Jerusalem in the first years of the twentieth century, it surveys the city’s medical institutions and personnel as a prelude to developments in the decades to come. It focuses on Jerusalem, which Western and missionary competition made into the city with the highest bed capacities in the empire, and on late Ottoman and regional developments, which set the stage for the medical profession’s development. Western encroachment, Zionist immigration and funding, late-Ottoman administrative reform, and local Palestinian initiative created an institutional and social setting that transformed Palestine’s medical landscape.

This chapter introduces mandates in mediation and provides a rationale for why we need to study them if we want to understand the process of mediation. The chapter also provides a list of Nordic mediation interventions stretching over a period of over seventy-five years. Mediators are individuals. Yet an overwhelming majority of those individuals who act as mediators between warring parties do so as representatives of what we here call a mandator – an organization, a country or countries, or both – that has sent them to mediate, and mediators can utilize the connections, reputation, leverage, and resources that the mandator possesses. The link between the mandator and the individual is the mandate. The mandate comprises the goal, instructions, and authority that together create the foundations for all that the mediator sets out to do. Still, despite their fundamental role in the mediation process, previous research on international mediation is largely silent on how mandates create the framework for the mediation efforts.

This chapter concentrates on the spatial presence of Palestinian doctors – the communities they served and those they did not. Villages rarely had medical facilities or doctors, and peasants had to travel to the town or city for medical services and would otherwise rely on traditional practitioners. Towns usually had missionary medical facilities, a small community of doctors (some of whom were native to the town), and one or two government medical facilities – a District Health Office, a government clinic, or a small hospital. Palestine’s large cities – Jerusalem, Haifa, and Jaffa – were characterized by a relatively large professional community, substantial Jewish presence, strong missionary presence that provided both educational and medical services, and a strong presence of the Mandate administration. The chapter places doctors on Palestine’s map and examines how medical services transformed urban relationships, as well as those between the city, the town, and the countryside.