This chapter outlines the different ways in which theologians of the Reformation received earlier medieval traditions. Luther himself, and both the Reformed tradition and most parts of the Catholic tradition, accepted the standard medieval view that the human nature hypostatically depends on the divine person. Dominicans followed Aquinas in supposing that the human nature comes to share in the eternal esse of the divine Son. And later Lutherans adopted the homo assumptus view of Augustine and the early Western Church.

Social adaptation requires humans to respond to others’ nonverbal emotional cues by selecting and executing adaptive motor responses. In this chapter, we provide a general overview of how visual perception of others’ emotional expressions, particularly threatening faces and bodies, promotes rapid processing and elaboration of multiple opportunities for action, at different levels of complexity. Notably, we will highlight how subcortical and cortical neural pathways interact to flexibly orchestrate our social behavior in response to threatening expressions, ranging from simple stimulus-driven reactions to more elaborated goal-directed actions. We will review recent findings from research on humans and other animals and discuss clinical implications, as well as future challenges and perspectives.

Galen employs several different taxonomies of body parts, dividing the body up in various ways. This chapter looks at some of the more prominent ones, especially those that either define parthood or shed light on Galen’s theorization of parthood in other ways. The central question guiding this discussion arises from claims about (in)expendability of various parts: why is it the case that, according to him, the loss of a bone leads to a complete loss of activity the bone supports (voluntary motion in a limb), but the loss of the stomach does not lead to the loss of the activity of nutrition. One of the key preoccupations emerging from various ways in which Galen differentiates bodily parts is the proper activity of parts, which shape his understanding of the role of parts and their significance relative to each other. The final sections of the chapter sketch out the difference between normative and functional understandings of a parthood.

From his 1982 conviction for killing a police officer and death sentence to the 2010 commutation of that sentence to life-in-prison-without-parole, Mumia Abu-Jamal has experienced and studied mass incarceration intimately as a political prisoner. At the local level, Mumia’s case is a microcosm of the period of the 1970s and 1980s in Philadelphia – the highpoint of rogue white supremacy within the city’s police department and the District Attorney’s office. At the macro level, the period of his incarceration spans the decades of exponential carceral expansion in the US that began in the 1980s. In the more than four decades since his 1982 conviction, the Abu-Jamal has penned thirteen books and thousands of short radio commentaries from prison, most notably Live from Death Row, which features harrowing, first-hand accounts of aging men and their struggles for medical care in the face of physical illness, younger men who are psychically and spiritually pulverized by guard brutality, barbarous conditions, humiliating body cavity strip searches, and the unnatural social isolation of death row imprisonment.

This chapter is a description and analysis of the modern and postmodern periods and how they influenced theologians from a variety of traditions as they wrestled anew with the doctrine of Christ. In characterizing modernity as an era which celebrates universal reason and human progress, the author examines the ways in which modern theologians both chafed against and conformed to these insights as they developed their ideas about the person and work of Christ. Likewise, the author engages postmodernity as a disavowal of universal reason and progress, and thereby examines the manner in which these concepts were both rejected and embraced by various theologians as they sought to answer Christ’s question: “Who do you say I am?” within a postmodern era.

Positron emission tomography (PET) is the most sensitive technique for imaging of human physiology and molecular pathways in vivo. Here we provide an overview of PET instrumentation and modelling and illustrate how different PET techniques can be used for mapping the molecular basis of the human emotion circuit. We first cover the principles of PET imaging and the most common imaging targets, modelling methods, and experimental designs in brain PET. We then describe how metabolic studies and neuroreceptor mapping of the endogenous dopamine, opioid, serotonin, and cannabinoid systems have contributed to our understanding of the emotional brain. Finally, we review the recent state-of-the art developments in PET-fMRI and total-body PET, and discuss how these techniques can transform the landscape of systems-level biological imaging of the emotion circuits across the brain and periphery.

This chapter examines doctors’ writings and unionization. It demonstrates how the Palestinian printed press contributed to professionalization and popularization of medicine and created new modes of doctor-patient interactions. Doctors’ publications exercised professional, social, and moral authority over their community and claimed prestige within the medical community. The chapter then explores local, national, and regional medical associations, following the formation of local associations in Haifa, Jerusalem, Jaffa, and Nablus; the participation of Palestinian doctors in regional conferences and associations; and finally, the formation of Palestine’s Arab Medical Association.

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is a noninvasive technique widely used in research to identify and characterize the neural correlates of human cognitive and affective processes. Here we provide a brief introduction to the physical and physiological bases of fMRI, as well as a description of some of the main analysis approaches. These include traditional approaches, such as those based on univariate general linear models, as well as more recent ones, including multivariate methods and connectivity measures. We discuss how these different techniques can be used to answer different, complementary scientific questions, providing some examples to illustrate this. We end with a discussion of some of the key issues, both in terms of experimental design and data acquisition, analysis, and interpretation, that should be considered when planning an fMRI study and that can be of particular interest to those new to the technique.

Venal Origins is a comparative and historical study of the roots of spatial inequalities in Spanish America. The book focuses on the Spanish colonial administration and the eighteenth-century practice of office-selling – where colonial positions were exchanged for money – to analyze its lasting impact on local governance, regional disparities, and economic development. Drawing on three centuries of rich archival and administrative data, it shows how office-selling exacerbated venality and profit-seeking behaviors among colonial officials, fostering indigenous segregation, violent uprisings, and the institutionalization of exploitative fiscal and labor systems. The enduring legacies from their rule remain visible today in the form of subnational authoritarian enclaves, localized cycles of violence, and marginalized indigenous communities, which have reinforced and deepened regional inequalities. By integrating perspectives from history, political science, and economics, Venal Origins provides a nuanced and empirically grounded analysis of how colonial officials shaped – and still influence – subnational development in Spanish America.

Chapter 8 provides a summary of the book’s key findings, emphasizing how the retrieval-based account provides better empirical coverage over the representational-based accounts. This chapter then explores key outstanding questions in the study of linguistic illusions, including the interaction between encoding and retrieval processes, individual differences, the effects of good-enough processing, and the role of different linguistic features across languages. The chapter concludes by outlining future directions for research, suggesting potential interventions to reduce attraction errors through memory training and timing manipulations. As the final chapter, it reflects on how scientific inquiry continues to evolve, encouraging further investigation into the cognitive mechanisms behind real-time language processing.

The civil war in Spain provoked deeper political thinking and involvement for Hemingway, and his political engagement shaped his writing about that war. Hemingway returned to his journalistic roots in the war reportage he wrote on the conflict, and experimented with dramatic form in his only play, The Fifth Column. In For Whom the Bell Tolls he absorbs, adapts, and rejects a romanticized view of the Spanish Civil War that had been developed and promulgated by European and American writers sympathetic (as Hemingway was) to the Spanish Republican cause, stripping from the realities of internecine conflict any potentially consoling significance of political commitment. The Second World War also drew Hemingway as a war correspondent (initially reluctant, he became an enthusiastic witness to, and even participant in, combat in France and Germany). On the basis of his wartime experience, he explored themes of forgiveness and grace in Across the River and into the Trees, a flawed novel whose purgatorial narrative is nevertheless an interesting experiment in fictional form.

The main portion of this essay will present representative Latin and vernacular travel narratives and related texts that postdate the Viking Age. It will be divided into sections according to the general direction of the journeys undertaken. In the material surveyed, accounts of travels to the north are typically associated with adventure and the supernatural. Travels to the west are associated with the more mundane, but equally tantalizing, mercantile and administrative activities. Travels to the south finally are associated with pilgrimages and warfare. Accounts of journeys towards the east do not, apart from a fifteenth-century translation from Latin into Danish of the account Sir John Mandeville’s travels, feature prominently in the material from mainland Scandinavia. Scholarship on medieval Scandinavian literature generally differentiates sharply and consistently between Latin and vernacular texts, and among the vernacular texts between those written in East Norse (Danish, Swedish, and Gutnish) and West Norse (Norwegian and Icelandic). In the present contribution, an effort has been made to include texts in Latin as well as East and West Norse.

For the historian, two features stand out over the course of the years 1950–1951, as the Colombo Plan took shape. The first is a sense of overloaded expectations by the British not being met, especially after the Americans declined to tie their own policy to British plans for sterling debt reduction. Logically, those seeking a British-shaped or US-determined narrative dependent on the conjoining of finance, foreign policy and defence strategy in plans for South and Southeast Asia need to look elsewhere, not at the Colombo Plan. The second is the emergence of a broader range of diplomats, politicians and planners whose work appears marginally in British and US archival records, but from 1950–51 increasingly in the archives of other Colombo Plan members such as Canada, India, Australia and New Zealand. This bigger cast of diplomatic players decouples the Colombo Plan from its British anchoring and enables the agency of others to emerge more fully.