This chapter presents an overview of relative clauses and relativisation processes from Old English to Contemporary English, as well as in varieties of English around the world. It centres on adnominal restrictive relative clauses and addresses the factors determining the distribution of relativisers used to introduce the relative clause. Of particular interest will be the changing frequency of each relativiser over time, and the changing weight of the relevant predictors used, focusing on those of a semantic, morphosyntactic, social or stylistic nature. Also included will be a micro-analysis of recent changes in relation to relative constructions and individual relativisers, especially in less formal language, such as the demise of which in favour of that and the specialisation of who with human antecedents in subject function. Already widely reported in both standard and World Englishes, these innovations are likely to become part of the grammatical core of standard English.

The term periglacial describes areas subject to repeated freezing and thawing and the processes associated with the growth of ice within soil and rock. Although originally referring to processes and climates adjacent to glaciers, “periglacial” now applies more broadly to cold-climate processes where frost action predominates. Earth’s cold, periglacial landscapes span both polar regions and many high elevation and mountainous areas. These landscapes are unlike any others, with ice-formed landforms such as pingos (Fig. 20.0) ice-wedge polygons, sorted circles, and rock glaciers found only in these cold landscapes.

Chapter 3 describes the imagery and production of the murals of the Old Testament in the Camposanto of Pisa completed in by Benozzo Gozzoli in 1484. Archbishop Filippo de’ Medici’s (1426–74) role in the commission is placed in the expanded context of his patronage and diplomacy throughout a long, distinguished career. These murals, painted during Pisa’s subjection to Florence, enhanced an impressive locus of Pisan identity and pride, while signalling the political reality of Florentine control.

Surface layer integrals are introduced as an adaptation of surface integrals to causal fermion systems and causal variational principles. Conservation laws are derived and formulated in terms of surface layer integrals.

In Act III, Lucia, who throughout the opera is increasingly showing signs of mental derangement, murders Arturo, the man who her brother arranged for her to marry. To highlight Lucia’s confused mental state, Donizetti composes a multi-sectional aria interspersed with choruses that begins with Lucia’s memory of Edgardo’s voice (‘The sweet sound’), and ends with a show-stopping cadenza (‘Shed bitter tears’). The orchestral accompaniment to this long multi-part aria (over 20 minutes in length) recalls the music found earlier in the opera, including Lucia’s cavatina, the love duet from Act I and the nuptial agreement music of Act II. In no other bel canto opera does female madness reveal itself to such a degree that we hear in the orchestra the inner thoughts of a madwoman on stage. Lucia’s madness is thus rationalised for the listener as we hear what Lucia hears and yet, it remains a complete mystery for the other characters on stage. In addition, no other bel canto opera in the first half of the nineteenth century that contains female madness has the woman woman commit murder. This plot twist therefore connects with more naturalistic tales of domestic violence made popular in the second half of the nineteenth century, such as in the operas of Verdi, Bizet and Puccini.

In Chapter 1, we invited you to consider the critical potential of social work: the potential for us as individual workers, and collectively as a profession, to question the social conditions and discourses that give rise to human suffering and what we might do about these. The critical standpoint is one that sensitises us to social injustice and the need for transformation. Being a critical practitioner is challenging: while we may decide that this is the path we wish to take, it is an ongoing process, borne out in day-to-day and week-to-week activities. Becoming a critical practitioner is not a single act of commitment, but an often-arduous journey of revelation and struggle. There are many potential setbacks along this journey. As the words of a great twentieth-century social reformer Martin Luther King remind us, ‘Human progress is neither automatic nor inevitable … Every step towards the goal of justice requires sacrifice, suffering and struggle; the tireless exertions and passionate concerns of dedicated individuals.’ Critical social workers are among those dedicated individuals with passionate concerns.

This chapter addresses the history of the English system of clausal complementation. It is organised around four major questions. First, where do complement clauses (or CCs) come from? The history of English indicates that adverbial clauses can turn into CCs (e.g. lest-complements), or phrasal units undergo clausalisation (e.g. the gerund) – or both these mechanisms come into play (e.g. the to-infinitive). Second, what changes can CCs undergo? Changes to CCs may affect their internal syntax. For example, subjectless non-finite clauses have a strong tendency to develop subjects (e.g. ECM constructions, for…to-infinitives, secondary predicates). Often, CCs also undergo distributional change as they spread to new CC-taking predicates. The characteristic pattern is one of lexical diffusion. Third, how does the system change as a whole? English sees an unmistakable trend towards more non-finite complementation – a development known as the ‘Great Complement Shift’. This leads to a great number of variation hotspots, where finite CCs compete with non-finite alternatives, or non-finite alternatives compete among themselves. Fourth, what eventually becomes of CCs? At least two pathways of change appear to be open to CCs. In both cases CCs become more main-clause like. Either the matrix clause develops into an operator (i.e. an auxiliary or parenthetical), or the matrix clause disappears altogether, leading to insubordination.

This chapter analyzes the popular dimensions of Egypt’s 2013 counterrevolution, using an original dataset of protests during the post-revolutionary transition. It shows that Egypt’s revolutionaries were unable to consolidate the social support of the revolution, and that this failure allowed counterrevolutionaries to channel broad disaffections with revolutionary rule into a popular movement for restoration. The dataset covers the final eighteen months of the transition and includes approximately 7,500 contentious events sourced from the major Arabic-language newspaper Al-Masry Al-Youm. These data reveal, first, the extent to which social mobilization persisted after the end of the eighteen-day uprising. The transition period was awash with discontent and unrest, much of it over nonpolitical issues like the deterioration of the economy, infrastructure problems, and unmet labor demands. Second, statistical analyses show that this discontent came to be directed against Mohamed Morsi’s government. The earliest and most persistent anti-Morsi protests emerged in places where the population had long been highly mobilized over socio-economic grievances. Later, they also began to emerge in places with large numbers of old regime supporters. Ultimately, these two groups – discontented Egyptians and committed counterrevolutionaries – came together to provide the social base for the movement that swept the military back to power.

The mass oscillation property is proved in Minkowski space using methods of scattering theory.

In Chapter 10, we shift the attention toward the right-peopling of states within their existing borders. We test conventional constructivist expectations by flipping the causal pathway back to ethnic settlements via ethnic cleansing. This is a crucial complement to our focus on border change since even a casual reading of European states’ violent history and our analyses suggest that much of their current ethnic homogeneity resulted from ethnic cleansing. We directly link ethnic cleansing to states’ fear of being right-sized. As rising nationalism in the nineteenth century threatened multiethnic states with the secessionism and irredentism examined in the preceding chapters, some states turned to ethnic cleansing to prevent territorial losses. To test this argument, we analyze our spatial data on changes in ethnic settlement areas from 1886 to the present, which we link to episodes of ethnic cleansing. Building on Chapters 7 and 8, we find that border-crossing groups and those with a history of lost home rule were most at risk of ethnic cleansing, especially in times of interstate war. The analysis closes the circuit and shows how right-peopling and right-sizing are part of the same macrohistorical process of nationalist state transformation.

The chapter analyzes the intersection of population control policies, Cold War dynamics, and racial considerations in the post–World War II era. It highlights the challenges faced by Western states in influencing birth control policies in postcolonial countries, with a focus on the perceived link between population growth and the spread of Communism. Key figures like Dudley Kirk and Frank Lorimer advocated for redefining relationships with developing nations to counter Communist expansion, emphasizing economic support and the reduction of fertility rates over military intervention. The chapter also explores the evolution of demographic viewpoints, moving away from racist eugenic traditions toward more democratic and liberal approaches to population control. The chapter provides insights into how intellectuals grappled with the unprecedented scale of population growth and its potential impact on global stability and resources, highlighting the strategic evolution of overpopulation discourse from Western industrialized countries to influence birth rates in Africa, Asia, and Latin America.

The First World War and its aftermath destabilized the international economic system. From volatile exchange rates and hyperinflation to industrial stagnation and mass unemployment, the collective challenges facing the nations of Europe threatened to undermine the prevailing order. In response, the Bank of England assumed a set of responsibilities aimed at upholding the City of London as an international financial center. It employed technical advisers who were able to shape domestic industrial policy, coordinate the creation of new central banks across the empire, and exert additional pressure on foreign governments abroad. Through these interventions, the Bank established a reputation as a leading monetary and intellectual authority and, in the process, redefined the structures of economic governance.