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The eighteenth-century Wahhābī movement in central Arabia arose with the aim of combatting the Muslim cult of saints, and in so doing led to the establishment of the Saudi state. An analysis of texts authored by the movement’s founder and eponym, Muḥammad b. ʿAbd al-Wahhāb (d. 1206/1792), demonstrates that he fully adopted the tawḥīd al-ulūhiyya doctrine, together with its attendant terminology and argumentation, from Ibn Taymiyya’s writings. It was due to this doctrine that the early Wahhābīs viewed Muslims who practiced a popular cult of saints as polytheists who must be converted or conquered; in their attempt to do so, the Wahhābīs transformed Ibn Taymiyya’s theoretical and often abstruse polemic into a casus belli with real-world consequences that reverberate to this day. The early Wahhābīs’ intransigent Taymiyyan-based monolatry distinguished them from broader currents of eighteenth-century Muslim revivalism and provided a template for the radical salafī militancy of recent decades.
A new theoretical framework is required to expose how the underlying political economic systems function and drive deforestation. The hypotheses and case studies are presented while situating deforesting processes in the international system and its many subsystems, which are composed of partially interlinked sectors that often compete for the same land areas. This is a detailed political economic analysis, based on regionally situated world-ecological analyses, which consider the power that different sectors have in causing the loss of forests, such as Brazilian ranching speculation, Amazonian gold mining, and Finnish pulp and energywood forestry. The chapter contends that there is a need to cultivate a deeper, comparative, and global crises-situated understanding of the role these forces have in driving deforesting. One must also understand the local-level enabling factors and the role of resistance. Insights are woven together from several disciplines and approaches such as political ecology and world-ecology into a new conceptual framework that can be widely applied to explain global development dynamics, beyond the specific application to deforestation.
This chapter turns to the concert minuet, asking how somatic knowledge of the minuet dance informs engagement with and understanding of this genre. The chapter begins with writings that show eighteenth-century listeners discussing concert minuets in relation to the minuet dance step, as well as eighteenth-century music-theoretical discussions of minuet composition that put forward a view of the concert minuet as the nonconformist version of the dance minuet. Two case studies discuss minuets from Haydn’s ‘London’ Symphonies – Nos. 97 and 102 – which were written around the same period as the dance minuets discussed in the previous chapter, and were also performed in Vienna in the 1790s. These case studies show ways in which Haydn plays with expectations formed by the dance minuet: he subverts the structural norms of minuet composition, as well as manipulating one’s feeling of the dance step. The argument is made that, while traditional forms of analysis tend to seek subversion of expectations as a feature for explication, minuets and somatic enquiry invite us to see artfulness through a different lens.
This chapter explores mediation strategies and discusses the way in which mediation mandates shape mediators’ different strategic choices. A central concern in the mandate for mediation is often to establish a framework for direct contact between the warring parties. This chapter deals with what can be regarded as the core of the mediation process: the strategies that mediators use to persuade the parties to reach an agreement or to facilitate a peaceful way forward. Mandates set some limitations and provide some opportunities in terms of which strategies mediators can use. In this chapter, we look at two strategy crossroads that all mediators face. These concern the order in which the various issues in the conflict are to be dealt with in the mediation, and how active the mediator ought to be in relation to the parties. We discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each of these different choices, and demonstrate the variations in these strategic choices based on the Nordic mediation experience.
This chapter explores the globalization of factor markets, particularly focusing on capital and labour, and how international monetary regimes have influenced these markets throughout European history. It discusses the evolution of capital markets and the role of different monetary systems, such as the gold standard and Bretton Woods, in facilitating cross-border capital mobility. The chapter also examines the impact of migration on labour markets, exploring how the movement of people has shaped economic outcomes in Europe. It highlights the benefits of globalization, such as increased efficiency and economic integration, while also acknowledging the challenges, including inequality and labour market disruptions.
This chapter examines the historical evolution of trade and globalization in Europe, focusing on the forces that have shaped trade patterns over time. It explores the impact of technological advancements, such as improvements in transportation and communication, as well as the influence of political decisions on trade policy, including cycles of protectionism and free trade. The chapter also discusses the economic benefits and challenges of globalization, analysing how trade has contributed to economic growth while also creating winners and losers within and between countries. The chapter argues that while globalization has generally increased economic efficiency, its effects have been unevenly distributed.
This chapter introduces peripheral physiological measures of emotion as important tools for studying emotion in affective neuroscience. It examines responses across three systems: skeletal muscle activity, autonomic nervous system (cardiovascular and electrodermal), and respiration. It surveys measurement modalities, derived metrics, their neural control, timescales of expected response, and prominent findings in recent literature, linking them to central nervous system activity throughout. The chapter concludes by highlighting outstanding questions and future challenges in the field of peripheral physiological measures of emotion.
This chapter examines the development of health services in late Ottoman Palestine. Through the eyes of a French physician living in Jerusalem in the first years of the twentieth century, it surveys the city’s medical institutions and personnel as a prelude to developments in the decades to come. It focuses on Jerusalem, which Western and missionary competition made into the city with the highest bed capacities in the empire, and on late Ottoman and regional developments, which set the stage for the medical profession’s development. Western encroachment, Zionist immigration and funding, late-Ottoman administrative reform, and local Palestinian initiative created an institutional and social setting that transformed Palestine’s medical landscape.
This chapter introduces mandates in mediation and provides a rationale for why we need to study them if we want to understand the process of mediation. The chapter also provides a list of Nordic mediation interventions stretching over a period of over seventy-five years. Mediators are individuals. Yet an overwhelming majority of those individuals who act as mediators between warring parties do so as representatives of what we here call a mandator – an organization, a country or countries, or both – that has sent them to mediate, and mediators can utilize the connections, reputation, leverage, and resources that the mandator possesses. The link between the mandator and the individual is the mandate. The mandate comprises the goal, instructions, and authority that together create the foundations for all that the mediator sets out to do. Still, despite their fundamental role in the mediation process, previous research on international mediation is largely silent on how mandates create the framework for the mediation efforts.
This chapter concentrates on the spatial presence of Palestinian doctors – the communities they served and those they did not. Villages rarely had medical facilities or doctors, and peasants had to travel to the town or city for medical services and would otherwise rely on traditional practitioners. Towns usually had missionary medical facilities, a small community of doctors (some of whom were native to the town), and one or two government medical facilities – a District Health Office, a government clinic, or a small hospital. Palestine’s large cities – Jerusalem, Haifa, and Jaffa – were characterized by a relatively large professional community, substantial Jewish presence, strong missionary presence that provided both educational and medical services, and a strong presence of the Mandate administration. The chapter places doctors on Palestine’s map and examines how medical services transformed urban relationships, as well as those between the city, the town, and the countryside.
This chapter develops a conceptual framework in order to understand the role of mandates in the process of mediation. It draws on what previous mediation research has theorized in terms of mandates and tries to develop a broader basis for how mandates can be systematically taken into account when studying mediation processes. It provides a definition of mediation mandates and explores how mandates might affect the various phases of the mediation process. A mediation mandate is an externally given formal or informal authorization to a third party for what it could/should do concerning settling or managing a threatening, ongoing, or stalemated armed conflict. We show how mediation mandates may differ depending on whether they originate from the conflict parties or externally to the conflict. The mandate is one of the key ways in which the trilateral relationship between sending organizations, conflict parties, and individual mediators are regulated. Mandates also vary in terms of being explicit or implicit as well as general or specific.
“In the years before independence, people were beaten, their land was stolen, women were raped, men were castrated and their children were killed,” explained Wambugu wa Nyingi in his witness statement during the 2009 Mau Mau claim. He concluded, “I would like the wrongs which were done to me and other Kenyans to be recognised by the British Government so that I can die in peace.”1 Nyingi ensured that his wish came true. In June 2013, the United Kingdom’s foreign secretary William Hague announced that Britain was to pay out £19.9 million in costs and compensation to more than 5,000 elderly Kenyans whose abuse the British colonial government had authorized during the Kenya Emergency (1952–60).
This chapter explores the interplay between emotions and memory, highlighting the interrelations between regulatory and memory processes. In the first section we describe how, through indirect and direct influences, emotions impact every phase of the episodic memory cycle: encoding, consolidation, and retrieval. Whereas many of these influences are attributed to the amygdala and hippocampus, recent work has emphasized the role of a broad network of regions, extending well beyond these medial temporal lobe regions. In the second section, we focus on the role of the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex in adjusting the content, emotionality, and narrative context at each phase of the episodic memory cycle. In the third section, we discuss the reciprocal interactions between emotions and memory: Our memories serve as triggers for emotions and can be used as an emotion regulation device, while our emotions and emotion regulation goals can likewise influence our memories. The final section highlights broad directions for future research.
The Cambridge Guide to Global Medieval Travel Writing is an ambitious and impressive undertaking that must have taken a lot of work to accomplish. Virtually the entire pre-modern world, with few exceptions, is within its compass.
Chinese travel writing is a literary genre. All such works contain a coherent narrative of the physical experience of a journey through space towards an identifiable place, written in prose. In later Chinese literary history, however, most travel writing concerns real journeys. Unlike early European travel writing, with its focus on distant, alien, and exotic lands, Chinese travel writing most often describes places inside China. Almost always written in short essay or diary format, the journeys described therein often – but not always – describe trips undertaken for sightseeing purposes. As for content, it can vary considerably, depending on the geographical focus of the narrative and the author’s personal interests. For instance, we might find descriptions of famous landmarks, prominent mountains, local customs and products, and flora and fauna. The ‘literary’ component of these works refers to descriptive and/or commentarial language that is at once personal. ‘Personal’ means active engagement between the author and the place visited and described, which often inspires the traveller to employ an elevated style of language rich in lyrical content.
This chapter follows Hemingway from his journalistic work in the early 1920s through the publication of The Sun Also Rises in 1926. Ambitious to write fiction that would be innovative and popular, Hemingway absorbed the influences of Sherwood Anderson, Ezra Pound, Gertrude Stein, and others as he adapted news stories into sketches and wrote short stories based on combat experience and on his youth. Hemingway’s early style grew in the rich soil of literary experimentation in Paris in the 1920s, where he encountered an international literary and artistic avant-garde. This earliest work exemplifies Hemingway’s experimentation and its relationship to his deep need to express the apparently inexpressible contents of his psyche and experience. The reception of his 1925 story collection In Our Time established his early reputation. This chapter’s reading of The Sun Also Rises emphasizes Hemingway’s ironic deployment of both received narrative conventions and religiously significant pilgrimage and ritual themes, which locates Hemingway in a crucial vein of literary modernism exemplified by Eliot’s The Waste Land. Like these other modernist works, Hemingway’s novel is immured in the social attitudes within which he worked; anti-Semitism, racism, and homophobia tangle the novel’s surface texture but also shape its narrative structures.