Chapter 5 explains “economic value,” the worth an individual assigns to an environmental good or service, reflecting what they are willing to pay (or accept) for more (or less) of it. Environmental goods and services not traded in markets are often seen as “free” or having “zero” economic value, leading to degradation and depletion. Assigning a “dollar value” to nature is important for pricing, policy design, project assessment, and compensation determination. Understanding the various types of economic benefits is essential for estimating the economic value of environmental goods and services, categorized by the “total economic value” framework. There are various approaches to estimating economic values when market data is lacking, such as the travel cost approach, hedonic pricing, contingent valuation, and the environment as an input approach. Non-market valuation techniques can be applied to estimate the value of statistical life and support the benefits transfer method. Case study examples of these valuation approaches explore their application to real-world environmental problems and assess some challenges they face.

Basic concepts are developed for supersonic airfoils, including why supersonic airfoils have low lift-to-drag ratios compared to subsonic airfoils. Supersonic airfoil flows are discussed, leading to a basic understanding of the flow around supersonic airfoils and the shock/expansion wave patterns that develop. Three supersonic airfoil theories are then developed, including linear theory, second-order theory, and shock-expansion theory.

Describe the mix of emotions and attitudes adolescents have towards themselves and their lives; understand the factors that cause unhappiness as well as those that promote well-being and buffer against adversity; evaluate the emotional opportunities and risks of adolescence.

As children learn to speak, read and write, they not only utilise and draw on the sounds of language, or phonemic and phonological awareness, they also implicitly and explicitly recognise and apply knowledge of how sounds are combined systematically in a language to form meaningful units called morphemes. A morpheme is a meaningful unit of a language that cannot be further divided, such as single word units (e.g. at, the, table) or parts of words that modify meaning (e.g. un-, mis) or grammatical forms (-ed, -ing, -s).

Learn about the primary ways to determine the aerodynamics of a vehicle, including semi-empirical methods, as well as various fidelity levels for computational approaches to predicting aerodynamics. Readers should be able to determine which levels of computational aerodynamic tools are appropriate for determining various aerodynamic characteristics (e.g., stall, cruise drag, cruise lift). Know the advantages of ground-based experimental testing, as well as the limitations and inaccuracies, as well as flight testing. Understand why the integrated triad of ground test, flight test, and computational simulation are important.

The chapter begins with the basic thermodynamic concepts that form the basis of high-speed flow theory, including a basic physical understanding of the second law of thermodynamics. This results in the ability to use the isentropic flow relationships in analyzing the properties of a compressible flow field, which results in the ability to analyze flow in a stream tube, and understand how a converging–diverging nozzle works. The basic relations for determining the change in flow properties across shock waves and expansion fans are developed, which make it possible to analyze flow fields using shock and expansion calculation methods. The basic relations for viscous flow are developed, leading to the relations for calculating the local skin-friction coefficient for a compressible boundary layer. The reader will then be able to understand the cause and effect of shock–boundary layer and shock–shock interactions. Finally, concepts for how flight vehicles are tested in wind tunnels are developed, which explains why it is difficult to fully model full-scale flight characteristics.

In Chapter 4, we discussed the two approaches to grammar that have been taught in Australian schools: traditional grammar, and Halliday’s functional grammar. We highlighted some limitations of traditional grammar and outlined the key concepts of functional grammar, which significantly influences English curricula in Australia and globally. While Chapter 4 emphasised explicit grammatical knowledge required by teachers, this chapter focuses on genres, text types, and the teaching of grammar and text types through explicit pedagogical methods.

Chapter 8 evaluates the challenges of SDG 6: Clean Water and Sanitation, which aims to ensure the availability and sustainable management of scarce water supplies and provide sanitation for all. Water crises and stress, including drought, are critical global risks facing society today in terms of economic impact. The future demand for water needs to be balanced against safeguarding the environmental demands, especially for critical ecological and hydrological functions. Meeting future clean water and sanitation needs requires correcting current mismanagement, which results in the over-extraction of groundwater and contamination of freshwater supplies. A comprehensive strategy is required to “bend the curve” on global water use and reduce the economic challenges of water crises and stress. This consists of ending the underpricing of water by removing existing policy distortions and encouraging greater and more efficient use of water markets and trade. Correcting the underlying market failures and creating opportunities for government investment in water-saving technologies and more efficient water distribution systems are also required.

Readers will learn why aerodynamics is important in determining the performance characteristics of airplanes. This will begin with a development of a basic understanding of fluid properties such as density, temperature, pressure, and viscosity and how to calculate these properties for a perfect gas. Basic details about the atmosphere are presented and why we use a “standard atmosphere” model to perform aerodynamic calculations; learn how to perform calculations of fluid properties in the atmosphere. Basic components of an airplane are presented and descriptions are included to describe what the components are used for.

How are conflict costs quantified and studied? For many researchers, analyzing the wide-ranging and long-term impacts of intrastate conflicts presents a harrowing task, dealing with topics involving death, devastation, and deprivation. As this chapter argues, there is no perfect way to measure the impact of war. Conflict costs are closely linked to the human development of countries involved in a conflict, helping to better clarify their impact relative to more peaceful countries. Furthermore, there are indicators of a conflict’s devastation beyond casualty figures that research should consider. Here, examining the conflict’s impact on areas such as education, infrastructure, health, the standard of living and economy, along with crime and the environment is useful. With numerous debates tackling these issues, this chapter delves into the complicated discussions of how to study these events. It suggests that a broader expansion of intrastate models and use of indicator statistics helps provide a greater understanding of such deadly occurrences and ultimately highlights the need to end or ideally prevent their outbreak.

The content of this chapter may serve as, yet, another supplemental topic to meet the needs and interests beyond those of a usual course curriculum. Here we shall present an oversimplified, but hopefully totally transparent, description of some of the fundamental ideas and concepts of quantum mechanics, using a pure linear algebra formalism.

This chapter outlines essential knowledge for pre-service and in-service teachers regarding the all-encompassing component of language and literacy development: critical literacy. In the current information-saturated world of ‘fake news’ and algorithms that decide the social media content we view, it is important to empower students with the ability to critically engage and knowingly accept or resist what they are reading or viewing. Critical literacy requires text users to approach their consumption of texts with a questioning mindset. It helps them develop an understanding of how texts work – the ability to analyse and identify the visual, linguistic and multimodal features of texts that create meaning implicitly and explicitly. Drawing upon foundational theories and critical literacy models, this chapter demonstrates how to integrate the five macro-skills of reading, writing, listening, speaking and viewing of both textual and multimodal sources to develop students’ critical comprehension and production of various text types.

Consolidate what you learned in Chapters 12–14; revisit the ideas you came across in Chapters 12–14 in a cross-cultural context.

For many adults, the idea that infants and toddlers are ‘knowers, thinkers and theorisers’ is a strange one. Such concepts are often associated with older children whose abilities to build and express understandings are more evident and align more readily with traditional ideas about learning and teaching. Furthermore, cognitive states and processes such as ‘knowing’, ‘thinking’ and ‘understanding’ are not visible in the same way that physical, social and emotional behaviours. This means that they have to be inferred and interpreted, especially when pre-verbal infants and toddlers cannot tell you what is going on in their heads. Together these challenges may result in a deficit view that, instead of seeing infants and toddlers as active and capable learners, positions very young as waiting to learn. Also, an emphasis on meeting physical and emotional needs may come at the cost of overlooking infants and toddlers cognitive capabilities and potentials.