In this chapter we apply the theoretical model we introduced earlier to the behaviour of leaders to find out what alarms them, and under what conditions they are able and willing to order repression. We do not argue that we can accurately predict and explain every act of violence and repression. But we show how it helps us understand empirical patterns of repression. This model can inform our assessment of when we are most likely to observe human rights violations. To explain how context shapes human rights violations, we concentrate on why political regimes influence leaders’ threat perceptions and why democracies have the best human rights records, and why they do not always guarantee the protection of everyone’s basic rights. We outline the influence of mass dissent and of socio-economic factors. The chapter concludes with a brief discussion of how context shaped respect for human rights in six countries.

We delve into how the digital revolution has affected the violation of, fight for, and documentation of human rights across the world. The Internet has impacted human rights in both positive and negative ways, and we discuss both direct and indirect ways this relationship has developed. The first part examines how the Internet has changed how people organize and speak up about human rights. Protesters use the Internet to organize their opposition, and new, transnational online actors are bringing together people from all over the world to campaign for climate justice, social reforms, or civil and political rights. The second part outlines ways in which the Internet is impacting media freedom and freedom of information. We present an example of how human rights movements have developed new tools to document human rights violations and to identify perpetrators to hold them accountable. In the third part we turn to the concept of digital repression – where governments use online tools to repress their citizen. We show how online censorship, surveillance, and propaganda are used to stabilize repressive governments, and present case studies on how hate speech and intrusive spyware have been linked to physical integrity violations.

This chapter introduces some of the most important efforts of the post-Second World War period to protect human rights at the international level. We commence with discussing the successes and failures of two types of international interventions that have dominated international responses to war: humanitarian interventions and peacekeeping operations. Next, we turn to international courts, spotlighting the International Court of Justice and the International Criminal Court. We discuss how they work, what kinds of cases they have handled, and what some of the common critiques have been. We then examine human rights conventions and various ways in which they have enhanced human rights protection, and where they have failed to do so. We also touch upon the strategy of ‘naming and shaming’, and assess whether it has been successful in improving human rights.

We return to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights to emphasize the core feature of human rights: Human rights are defined, envisaged, and enshrined in international law as a universal and inalienable rights. Systematic and scientific academic research is essential for understanding where and why human rights are violated, and to be able to predict and to prevent abuse in the future. The growing body of empirical research of the academic community provides an increasingly detailed and expansive knowledge base grounded in real-world observations, shedding light on why so many individuals are denied their human rights and, consequently, their ability to live in dignity. In many places, public debates and political decisions become more polarized, playing out different groups against each other, and attempting to deny some people their basic rights and their humanity

This chapter introduces the meaning of human rights, what those rights are and where they can be found, but it also offers some critiques of human rights, especially the charge that they represent little more than Western values. The chapter discusses the universality of human rights, embodied in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), and the fact that all human beings have human rights no matter where they live and no matter whether their own state has ratified various human rights conventions. It introduces international human rights law, which takes human rights from the moral or ethical sphere into real law. We discuss the relationship between domestic and international human rights law. We conclude with an introduction to the major players in the human rights field with examples of the kind of work these bodies engage in.

This chapter examines the obligations and responsibilities for protecting human rights and it does so by focusing mainly on ways in which states and other entities contribute to the violation of human rights standards. One of the major questions addressed here is whether the human rights obligations of states end at their territorial borders, or whether they also have extraterritorial obligations as well.