In Chapter 11, we focus on creativity and design in the context of group operations and productivity. We discuss the importance of structure to effective group performance and describe practices and considerations that, if implemented, promote the effectiveness of group facilitation. In addition, we discuss a wide variety of techniques that can be utilized to enhance group decision making, problem solving, and the building of trust and member engagement. We introduce strategies for dealing with conflicts among group members.

In Chapter 15, we focus on a particular type of group, the team. We discuss the differences between groups and teams, the importance of effective teamwork and how to encourage it, and why teams sometimes fail to achieve desired outcomes. We discuss the challenges that can come from cross-functional teams. We also examine a variety of team building techniques that readers can readily employ.

This chapter discusses and analyses the nature of convergence between languages which are either not closely related or entirely unrelated. Attention is given to the processes involved in linguistic convergence, with particular attention being given to the nature of linguistic areas. The question is asked, to what extent can the post-Darwinian language family tree model of descent and relationship, which works well for Indo-European, be applied to other proposed language families? The case study focusses on the potential for western and central Europe being a linguistic area.

While there are many different interpretations of critical pedagogy (Wink, 2011), at its heart is a genuine connection with learner lives and lifeworlds. In an era of increased standardisation, and calls for ‘back to basics’ education, critical pedagogy engages both learners and educators in working together as powerful creators of knowledge. In the process, the constructed nature of knowledge is made explicit (Lankshear, 1997). Learners whose ‘virtual schoolbags’ (Thomson, 2002), which are the rich knowledge and experience gained through social and cultural lifeworlds, are typically not invited into the classroom and therefore risk a life of disengagement from formal schooling. It is these learners who are most clearly poised to benefit from a critical pedagogic approach.

In Chapter 4, we conduct an in-depth exploration of norms at both the individual and group levels. We discuss how they develop, how they are classified, and the factors that encourage their acceptance by group members. We also discuss the collusive behavior and deviancy that can occur in groups and their connection to group norms.

Chapter 6 covers continental rifting and rift-related processes that operate when continental lithosphere is thinned and broken. It covers the two fundamental modes of rift initiation; active and passive rifting. It also cover the role of mantle plumes and pre-rift structures that weaken the lithosphere. Magmatism typically varies along rift systems and is often related to plume influence during rift initiation. The main structural elements of rifts are presented, from rift transfer zones to fault relay ramps, together with the evolution of rifts in terms of fault growth, strain, crustal thinning and rift (a)symmetry. While some rifts open orthogonally, most rifts experience oblique rifting. Other rifts again show evidence of two or more phases of extension, and the interference between the two phases in terms of fault orientation and interaction is discussed. Different tectonic settings, such as back-arc rifting, transform fault settings, and orogen-related rifting are covered. The deposition of sediments in relation to structural elements is important, and both synrift and postrift sedimentation are discussed. Rifts also host important hydrocarbon and mineral resources, and examples from northern Europe and North America are provided in this chapter.

This chapter introduces you to a relational approach to citizenship education, one that is grounded in how educators can and do engage children in coming together to interact with and learn from others in their communities. In this chapter, we are interested in a broad understanding of citizenship education, one which might be better understood as education for citizenship. While commonly understood as either a ‘status’ or a ‘practice’, this chapter argues that citizenship, above all else, concerns relationships. Recognising this fact requires us as educators to consider how civic relationships have been and are (often problematically) framed and how relational pedagogies can recognise and draw upon learners’ existing civic dispositions, might develop those civic dispositions further, and can build civically responsive educational settings. The chapter will provide a critical overview of relevant existing research on citizenship education before developing key features, including key pedagogical features, of a relational approach to citizenship education.

Chapter 1 introduces the reader to many of the topics and concepts that will be discussed in the book. The concept of a group and what differentiates it from a team, or a simple gathering of people is discussed. Additionally, the influence of social media on group establishment and membership is explored, along with a brief introduction to many other concepts. The chapter is intended to draw the reader in and to set the stage for much further and deeper investigation and discussion of the contents of the chapters that follow.

This chapter presents a synthesis of two key constructs: nature-based approaches and experiential learning. The first part of this chapter presents an overview of nature-based approaches. Research perspectives are presented to outline the importance of natural spaces in nurturing children and young people’s wellbeing, connection with nature, development of ecological awareness and holistic engagement with learning. Experiential learning theory is defined and described to examine the transformational potential of learning experienced outdoors. The interactive relationship and theoretical perspectives underlying experiential approaches are presented.

The second part of this chapter presents discussion on nature-based programs such as Forest Schools, Bush Kinders and Schools, and Nature/Environmental Kindergartens and Schools. Case studies will provide authentic contexts to highlight key aspects of intentional practice that enhance experiential learning and inquiry in nature-based settings. Finally, a synthesis of enabling practice is presented to further consider specific pedagogical implications underlying nature based approaches.

The Earth’s interior is the focus of this chapter, where we present the most important methods and data sources that allow us to gain information about the inside of our planet. Seismic waves give us refraction and reflection data and are used together with magnetic and gravity anomaly data in increasingly sophisticated ways. Seismic tomography is presented, which provides images and models of the interior. In this chapter it is shown how variations in S and P wave velocities are essential to our understanding of Earth’s interior, and how different kinds of geophysical data can be used to generate anomaly images that reflect rheologic variations, magma, partial melting and phase transformations. Some parts of the planet are dominated by descending cool lithosphere and mantle, while others are regions of net upwelling. The deep geodynamic processes are related to plate motions, but in a complex way that needs a better understanding.

In this first chapter, the concept of plate tectonics is briefly defined along with related terms such as tectonics, geotectonics, geodynamics and mantle dynamics. The uniqueness of Earth’s active plate tectonics is emphasized through comparisons with our neighboring planets, where asteroid impacts and volcanism tend to be important. Faults, folds and evidence of volcanism are common on many planets, but they are not related to plate tectonic processes. The Earth’s continents and oceans, zones of volcanism, seismic activity and topographic expression are not matched with any other planet in our solar system, and the chapter emphasizes that the plate tectonic model is able to explain first-order tectonic features and processes on Earth, and how it influences topography, climate and the evolution of life.

Chapter 8 gives an overview of the general structure and composition of oceanic lithosphere – the most common type of lithosphere on Earth. Its thickness, layered structure, seismicity, variation in seafloor elevation, magnetic anomaly pattern and composition are put in context of oceanic spreading and associated processes. The range of spreading rates, from ultraslow to superfast, is discussed. Differences in spreading rate have implications for the size of the magma chamber under the spreading ridge and therefore for the thicknesses of the different oceanic crustal layers. Slow spreading also favors exhumation of mantle and the formation of extensional detachments and core complexes. In this chapter the crystallization of melt to form oceanic crust is discussed along with the formation of hydrothermal mineralization and smokers. Hydrothermal activity produces ores that represent important metal resources that may be mined in the future. This chapter also presents ophiolites, oceanic crust on land, and simple models for obduction.

In Chapter 7, we explore why people choose to join groups and the factors that influence their membership decisions. We discuss factors that make groups more attractive as well as less attractive in the eyes of prospective members. We also discuss the challenges and benefits that can be derived from multiple group memberships.