The fundamental process of oceanic subduction is explored in this chapter. It discusses subduction at global scale, including how subducted lithosphere sinks into the mantle, to the transition zone between the upper and lower mantle, and sometimes all the way to the core, creating subduction slab graveyards. These graveyards are linked to velocity variations near the mantle-core boundary. The subduction zone itself is explored at crustal levels from the slab to the top. This includes the bending, fracturing and serpentinization of the oceanic slab itself, the volcanic arc, the forearc basin. The chapter discusses hydration of the downgoing slab in the context of fluid circulation and melt formation, and how melting produces shallower magmatism. It also discusses the geochemical signature of arc magmatism and the associated back-arc heat flow. It also explores trench advance and trench retreat and consequences for subduction zone processes. Oblique subduction is covered together with strain partitioning into strike-slip and orthogonal motion along convergent plate boundaries. Examples from Central America, the Sunda trench (Sumatra), and from other location around the Pacific Ocean. Toward the end of the chapter, the complicated subject of subduction initiation is discussed.

In Australia, the educator landscape continues to be dominated by persons who are non-Indigenous, middle-class, speakers of English as their primary language and of European/Anglo cultural heritage (Daniels-Mayes 2016; Perso & Hayward 2015). When working with culturally minoritised learners, educators currently find themselves operating amid educational imperatives that are often complex and contradictory (Unsworth 2013). As foregrounded in chapters 3–5, cultural responsivity is a pedagogical approach that seeks to value, recognise and utilise the intelligence and cultural capacities that students already possess in the classroom (Morrison et al., 2019). This is a practice that requires educators to go beyond the limitations of simply being culturally aware, having cultural understanding or being culturally competent and instead seeks to tailor an educator’s practice according to learners’ unique place-based linguistic and cultural repertoires. In doing so, the eductor acknowledges through their practice that First Nations contexts are not all the same and that learners will often speak a range of differing home languages.

Active collisional orogens represent the most impressive topographic features on Earth, with enormous masses of rocks being uplifted, exposed to surface erosion and sculptured into lofty mountains and deep valleys that show vast diversity in terms of climate, biodiversity, natural resources. In this chapter the modern Himalaya is presented in more detail, together with the Alpine system and the older Grenvillan orogenic belt that provides a deeper level of orogenic erosion. Differences are discussed and related to tectonic setting, duration of collisional phase, rigidness of colliding continents, synorogenic crustal heating and precollisional accretionary history. This chapter demonstrates that while the convergent Himalayan-Tibetan system generates a regime of thrust tectonics along its margins, the Tibetan plateau is dominated by extensional tectonics and strike-slip deformation. This is related to orogenic collapse and lateral extrusion linked to flow of partially molten middle to lower crust. Geophysical data are presented that give support to this interpretation. The Scandinavian Caledonides are presented as an example of a relatively short lived but major collisional orogen with deep continental subduction and a strong phase of extensional collapse.

The motion of plates is called plate kinematics. It can be relative or absolute, and both are explained in this chapter. Surface movements can be measured from space, and the results show that active deformation, volcanism and seismicity are focused along plate boundaries. This chapter emphasizes that the Earth‘s inner seismic structure confirms that the mantle is dynamic and in constant motion. Convective mantle flow has been suggested for a century and are a major field of research because of its indirect association with plate motions. Plumes represent more localized columns of upward moving hot mantle that generate crustal magmatism and volcanoes. They work together like a big internal machinery with implications for many geologic, geophysical and biologic processes. This chapter summarizes plate tectonics and the deeper plume and hotspot processes, and how it is possible to constrain and reconstruct plate motion into the past and, to some extent, also into the future.

In Chapter 10, we discuss problem solving and decision making in groups. We explore some of the advantages and disadvantages of problem solving and decision making in groups. We discuss the factors that promote and discourage groupthink. We discuss basic problem solving using a variety of different approaches including the Rational Problem-Solving Process, the Pareto system, Nominal Group Technique, and several others.

This chapter introduces readers to the processes underlying language ontact and how these relate to both personal and group multilingualism. Concepts such as superstratal, adstratal and substratal directions of contact are considered, as are the levels of influence put forward by Thomason and the integration process put forward by Winford. Interpretations of borrowing and interference are aired. A case study of Estonian Halbdeutsch is used to exemplify and test many of these ideas.

Education continues to primarily focus on educator-directed traditional transactions of pre-determined knowledge and skills not necessarily equally accessible or transformational for all learners (Smith, 2018). In contrast, deeper learning required for transformation requires pedagogies that facilitate contextualised understandings of shared meanings. Optimal transformational learning requires thoughtful development of the self as an educator, deliberate planning of safe learning environments and pedagogical practice that enables critical thinking. A pedagogy of hospitality provides a relational and safe space, but also an intentionally welcoming and critical learning space that holistically nurtures learners. Pohl (1999) identifies that hospitality is not charity but shared humanity as pedagogy; hospitality is a form of justice that facilitates meaningful learning.

Five key outcomes of pedagogy as hospitality are discussed in this chapter: love; formation and transformation; intentional nurture; critical empowerment; and hope and justice.

The central idea of this chapter is koineisation, the process by which discrete varieties tend to form into a new compromise variety when speakers of these varieties find themelves living side by side. Dialect levelling and new dialect formation are central forces in the process. The case study considers what happens when closely related but discrete language varieties come together in new circumstances. Primary focus is given to contact between Scandinavian varieties and Low German in the late medieval and early modern periods and between Old English and Viking Norse in northern England in the early medieval period.

This introduction sets the scene by exploring the richness of the diversity of learners and critically examines the imperative for educators within the current educational climate to employ pedagogies that transform learning experiences, particularly for those who continue to be marginalised and are increasingly disengaged from education. The aim of the introduction is to lay the foundation for the significance of supporting educators in pedagogical decisions that prioritise and are socially just and responsive to the inclusion of all learners, thereby engaging and empowering learners as active co-designers and self-regulators of respectful, meaningful and impactful learning. In scaffolding educator efficacy, the introduction encourages self-reflective strategies for sustained critique of applying inclusive, responsive, enabling and socially just pedagogical approaches within their educational practice.