This chapter describes how rifting may lead to continental break-up and the formation of a new ocean bound by passive continental margins. Passive continental margins define the transition from continental crust of normal thickness to oceanic crust. They are results of continental rifting that has caused the crust to break and give space to a new ocean. The break-up splits the rift into two, often unequal, parts that become tectonically inactive (passive) as the ocean starts to spread and widen. It is shown how some passive margins are magmatic with large amounts of volcanic activity, while other margins are magma-poor. Some margins are narrow, while others are wide and strongly thinned. The chapter also discusses hyperextended margins, where continental crust has been extended to the point that mantle rocks are exposed at sea bottom. This chapter presents these different settings and discusses how passive margin types are related to the final stages of rifting or initial stages of break-up. The type of magmatism involved is discussed, as are the depositional patterns that characterize the different kinds of passive margins. A number of natural examples are presented in this chapter, particularly from the south and north Atlantic margins.

Educational settings are becoming increasingly diverse including culture, gender, ability and religious beliefs. Yet, a mono-cultural approach to teaching that prioritises some learners while excluding others continues to be adopted (Morrison et al., 2019). Building on past education declarations, the Alice Springs (Mparntwe) Education Declaration (Education Council, 2019) has a strong focus on equity and social justice with goal 1 calling for ‘The Australian education system [to] promote[s] excellence and equity’. Building on this, goal 2 seeks to develop ‘confident and creative individuals; successful lifelong learners; active and informed members of the community’. If we are to meet these goals, educators need to recognise and embrace the lifeworlds of all learners and use these as platforms from which new learning can build; something that is at the heart of culturally responsive pedagogies (CRP). This chapter argues that educational approaches founded on pedagogies that draw on learner’s lifeworlds, lived experiences and funds of knowledge (Zipin, 2009), foster enhanced educational engagement, achievement and wellbeing.

In Chapter 3, we describe the evolution and development of groups as well as the emotional connection that often develops between group members and their groups. We examine several theories associated with group development. We conclude the chapter with a discussion of factors associated with group success and failure.

Chapter 15 deals with the exciting first part of our planet, the time from which we have no actual rocks preserved. it summarizes our current understanding of how the planet first formed after formation of the solar system, how dust, stones, and gases collected into planetesimals that rapidly clustered to form planets. The importance of a molten planet Earth being hit by a Mars-size object is underscored, causing the formation of the Moon. In the following, Earth rapidly differentiated into a metallic core and a silicate mantle (magma ocean) that solidified from the bottom up in only a few million years. During solidification the magma ocean concentrated water into the shallow mantle, which set the stage for making the Earth’s oceans and generating a dynamic planet from its core to its surface. Emphasis is put on the information contained in Hadean zircon grains preserved in younger rocks, which has led some geologists to propose that the Hadean landscape resembled present-day Earth, with the presence of continents and oceans, and even the existence of some form of plate tectonics.

Early childhood education as a field has heavily relied on theories from developmental psychology since the 19th century to inform pedagogy and practice. The use of developmental theories has been significant in assisting the field to raise its professional status, however, an over-reliance on these theories alone has contributed to marginalising children with rich cultural, linguistic and religious diversities. This chapter will focus on exploring co-constructed pedagogies as creating inclusivity in early childhood education (birth to age 8). In particular, co-constructed pedagogies engage children, educators/teachers, families and community in dialogue to inform curriculum and practices that reflect diverse learning communities. It is argued that co-constructed pedagogies are not only important in early childhood education but also offer insights that can support inclusivity in primary and secondary education.

This chapter considers semi-creoles, varieties which share features with creoles (and pidgins) but appear to be more like ‘mainstream’ varieties of the lexifier language than either of these states. The view is taken that all of these states and their backgrounds can be seen more as being points on a large-scale continuum. The case study considers potential histories for African American Vernacular English.

This chapter will examine how a transdisciplinary approach to curriculum design provides a context for the development of intercultural awareness, fosters conceptual understanding and places the learner at the heart of the educational experience. A theoretical basis for transdisciplinary learning will first be presented. This will be followed by an analysis of the nature of the individual in the learning process and how this relates to the development of a global mindset. The chapter will conclude by offering practical considerations for the planning, teaching and assessing of learning through a transdisciplinary approach.

This chapter considers what effects language death (otherwise, language shift) might have upon language change, both in the language which is losing speakers and in those which are gaining them. Theory is tested against experience. The largely psycholinguistic concept of language attrition is introduced as a means of demonstrating how individual speakers might ‘lose’ their language over time. Potential differences in terms of survival and effect between immigrant and autochthonous languages are discussed. Effects of dominant language on dominated, and vice versa, are also analysed. The case study, on Shetland Norn, illustrates a number of the issues considered.

Chapter 2 provides a review of the fundamentals of Earth Science needed to understand the plate tectonic model. It provides an overview of the different kinds of forces involved in geoscience and continues on to stress, deformation and strain rate. The chapter explores the global stress pattern of the uppermost crust, shows how such information is retrieved, and discusses how it relates to the plate tectonic model. In this context, deformation structures such as faults, fabrics, folds and shear zones are briefly reviewed. Rheology, which relates to how the different parts of our planet react to stress, is also discussed. Further, simple models for rheological variations or profiles through the outer part of the planet are discussed, as such profiles strongly influence how lithospheric plates deform.

Chapter 5 presents the topic of goals, both individual and group. We discuss how goals are formed and the various types of goals we establish. We discuss the difference between operational goals that by definition are actionable, and nonoperational goals that are much less defined. We examine the agendas that members of groups often bring with them to a group and work to pursue. We also discuss the effects that goals can have on the productivity of groups.

Chapter 13 deals with the ultimate stage of plate convergence, which is continent-continent collision. Collisional orogeny starts when an ocean is closed and two continental margins collides. Structures, processes and evolution of collisional mountain belts are covered from a general perspective, and different types of such orogens are outlined. Asymmetric versus symmetric belts are explained, and the overall structure of an orogenic belt, from the non-metamorphic foreland to the high-grade hinterland or core. The chapter explores foreland basins and foreland thrusting-related structures such as duplexes and detachment folds, and how deformed foreland layers can be restored to explore orogenic displacements involved. It explains why the hinterland heats up as crustal thickening continues or is maintained, and how this can enhance mid-crustal flow and orogenic plateau formation. Continental subduction is also discussed, where one of the continental margins is pulled down to sub-crustal depths and ultra-high pressures. Models for exhumation of (ultra)high-pressure rocks and the channel flow model are discussed, as is the role of syn- to postorogenic extension. The chapter also covers intracontinental orogeny, where no ocean is involved, and covers erosional aspects of continental orogens.