The book concludes with a brief discussion of a number of the themes covered in the book, in particular, multilingualism. The chapter points out that linguistic contact is likely to be more central to the processes of language change than has been assumed by many specialists.

In this chapter, we will inquire into a common definition of constructivism that acknowledges cognition (learning) not as a passive process of receiving information, but as an active process of making meaning, a mental construction that reframes our existing understandings from our different experiences (Olusegun, 2015). In addition, we will explore the historical roots of constructivism to identify common themes in these models through examining insights from key theorists, its strengths and possible limitations. Furthermore we will present a rationale for a ‘flipped PBL’ constructivist pedagogy that provides learners with discourse through authentic problems that enable situational and ongoing cognitive motivation by way of mastery of key concepts and the application of conceptual knowledge to a range of contexts. The uniqueness of this pedagogical approach employs flipped learning experiences to build expertise, depth of learning and problem-solving across a range of contexts to ensure breadth of application. To gain a deeper understanding of this approach, we will also look at some examples of its application in a primary and secondary context and examine the implications for its use.

This chapter will develop your understanding of the role of widening participation in Australia, specifically the pedagogical approaches outlined throughout the chapter which can be enacted to support learners from all backgrounds. These critical teaching approaches have the power to disrupt the reproduction of existing structural inequalities to enhance the educational success of learners from all sectors of Australian society.

In Chapter 9, we discuss the concept of leadership and do so in the context of six theoretical views of leadership. We discuss the various styles of leadership as a segue into a discussion of transactional and transformational leadership. We also discuss the connection and importance of emotional intelligence to successful group leadership.

The fundamental process of oceanic subduction is explored in this chapter. It discusses subduction at global scale, including how subducted lithosphere sinks into the mantle, to the transition zone between the upper and lower mantle, and sometimes all the way to the core, creating subduction slab graveyards. These graveyards are linked to velocity variations near the mantle-core boundary. The subduction zone itself is explored at crustal levels from the slab to the top. This includes the bending, fracturing and serpentinization of the oceanic slab itself, the volcanic arc, the forearc basin. The chapter discusses hydration of the downgoing slab in the context of fluid circulation and melt formation, and how melting produces shallower magmatism. It also discusses the geochemical signature of arc magmatism and the associated back-arc heat flow. It also explores trench advance and trench retreat and consequences for subduction zone processes. Oblique subduction is covered together with strain partitioning into strike-slip and orthogonal motion along convergent plate boundaries. Examples from Central America, the Sunda trench (Sumatra), and from other location around the Pacific Ocean. Toward the end of the chapter, the complicated subject of subduction initiation is discussed.

In Australia, the educator landscape continues to be dominated by persons who are non-Indigenous, middle-class, speakers of English as their primary language and of European/Anglo cultural heritage (Daniels-Mayes 2016; Perso & Hayward 2015). When working with culturally minoritised learners, educators currently find themselves operating amid educational imperatives that are often complex and contradictory (Unsworth 2013). As foregrounded in chapters 3–5, cultural responsivity is a pedagogical approach that seeks to value, recognise and utilise the intelligence and cultural capacities that students already possess in the classroom (Morrison et al., 2019). This is a practice that requires educators to go beyond the limitations of simply being culturally aware, having cultural understanding or being culturally competent and instead seeks to tailor an educator’s practice according to learners’ unique place-based linguistic and cultural repertoires. In doing so, the eductor acknowledges through their practice that First Nations contexts are not all the same and that learners will often speak a range of differing home languages.

Active collisional orogens represent the most impressive topographic features on Earth, with enormous masses of rocks being uplifted, exposed to surface erosion and sculptured into lofty mountains and deep valleys that show vast diversity in terms of climate, biodiversity, natural resources. In this chapter the modern Himalaya is presented in more detail, together with the Alpine system and the older Grenvillan orogenic belt that provides a deeper level of orogenic erosion. Differences are discussed and related to tectonic setting, duration of collisional phase, rigidness of colliding continents, synorogenic crustal heating and precollisional accretionary history. This chapter demonstrates that while the convergent Himalayan-Tibetan system generates a regime of thrust tectonics along its margins, the Tibetan plateau is dominated by extensional tectonics and strike-slip deformation. This is related to orogenic collapse and lateral extrusion linked to flow of partially molten middle to lower crust. Geophysical data are presented that give support to this interpretation. The Scandinavian Caledonides are presented as an example of a relatively short lived but major collisional orogen with deep continental subduction and a strong phase of extensional collapse.

The motion of plates is called plate kinematics. It can be relative or absolute, and both are explained in this chapter. Surface movements can be measured from space, and the results show that active deformation, volcanism and seismicity are focused along plate boundaries. This chapter emphasizes that the Earth‘s inner seismic structure confirms that the mantle is dynamic and in constant motion. Convective mantle flow has been suggested for a century and are a major field of research because of its indirect association with plate motions. Plumes represent more localized columns of upward moving hot mantle that generate crustal magmatism and volcanoes. They work together like a big internal machinery with implications for many geologic, geophysical and biologic processes. This chapter summarizes plate tectonics and the deeper plume and hotspot processes, and how it is possible to constrain and reconstruct plate motion into the past and, to some extent, also into the future.

In Chapter 10, we discuss problem solving and decision making in groups. We explore some of the advantages and disadvantages of problem solving and decision making in groups. We discuss the factors that promote and discourage groupthink. We discuss basic problem solving using a variety of different approaches including the Rational Problem-Solving Process, the Pareto system, Nominal Group Technique, and several others.

This chapter introduces readers to the processes underlying language ontact and how these relate to both personal and group multilingualism. Concepts such as superstratal, adstratal and substratal directions of contact are considered, as are the levels of influence put forward by Thomason and the integration process put forward by Winford. Interpretations of borrowing and interference are aired. A case study of Estonian Halbdeutsch is used to exemplify and test many of these ideas.