This last chapter of the book focuses on the Archean and Proterozoic part of the Earth’s history, bridging the rapidly changing processes of early Earth with modern plate tectonics as dealt with in Chapters 1-14. It discusses the common Archean (4-2.5 billion years) granite and greenstone terranes and how they may reflect specific tectonic conditions associated with gravitational instabilities and tectonic accretion. Although different from today’s subduction-related accretion systems, these tectonic processes allowed for crustal accretion and amalgamation into (super)cratons. Proterozoic (2.5-0.54 billion years) terranes are widespread as accretionary complexes between or along Archean cratons. The chapter discusses how Paleomagnetic techniques and stratigraphic correlations constrain continental drift throughout the Proterozoic, and how their paths define cycles of supercontinent assembly, tenure, and dispersal. Evidence of modern plate tectonics are also discussed, and a lot of Proterozoic geology seems to be linked to plate tectonics, even though high-pressure rocks (eclogite, blueschist) are rare. It is concluded that the age and mechanism of onset of plate tectonics remains a controversial and fascinating topic that will continue to evolve into the future.

Chapter 12 provides readers with a discussion of conflict in groups. We explore the sources and dynamics of group conflict as well as how to resolve it. We address the importance of accurately diagnosing conflict when it arises in groups as well as provide readers with a strategy for diffusing and resolving it.

This chapter discusses and exemplifies the nature and devlopment of pidgins and creoles. Placed in social and historical context, a range of varieties, contemporary and historical, are discussed. Competing theories on the development of these varieties -- as well as whether they are closely connected to each other -- are addressed. Bickerton’s idea of the language bioprogram hypothesis is critiqued, while the most potent and popular contemporary views on how creoles developed -- creole exceptionalism and uniformitarianism -- are compared and analysed. The case study considers the linguistic history and present nature of the creoles of Suriname, with particular emphasis on Sranan.

This chapter deals with the strike-slip fault zones that systematically offset midocean spreading ridges such as the mid-Atlantic ridge. Transform faults are one of three types of plate boundaries and are the active part connecting spreading ridge segments. The chapter investigates these in terms of size, distribution, dynamics, kinematics and seismicity. It looks at how transform faults relate and contrast to their mostly inactive extensions called fracture zones. Fracture zones can typically be traced across the ocean and record information about spreading direction and relative plate motions through geologic time. The chapter also discusses the origin of transform faults and how they provide a link to the mantle and their role as vertical conduits in terms of fluid flow between the mantle and the ocean floor. Several examples are shown where structural and seismic details are shown. This chapter also discusses complications caused by changes in opening direction, creating both transpressional and transtensional deformation along transform faults, and over time, curved fracture zones.

For thousands of years Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people nurtured their young, allowing natural skills to develop. Education using the powers of observation and listening was the most important process used with information being delivered to the child when they were ready to receive it. Most times this information was delivered by several members of the community. Prominent Australian Aboriginal scholar Kaye Price (2012) affirms that ‘right from the beginning there was a specialised education and for each child there was a teacher, a mentor and a peer with whom to learn … who ensured that history and the essentials of life were taught’ (p. 4). Aboriginal society was based on an egalitarian system that was holistic and emphasised belonging, spirituality, and relatedness. Learning was viewed as a natural holistic process where education was centred on the land and children learned alongside adults (Martin, 2005). The traditional epistemological system that maintained Aboriginal Nations in Australia for millennia was disrupted upon colonisation in 1788 resulting in discrimination towards Aboriginal culture and traditions (Morgan, 2019).

In Chapter 11, we focus on creativity and design in the context of group operations and productivity. We discuss the importance of structure to effective group performance and describe practices and considerations that, if implemented, promote the effectiveness of group facilitation. In addition, we discuss a wide variety of techniques that can be utilized to enhance group decision making, problem solving, and the building of trust and member engagement. We introduce strategies for dealing with conflicts among group members.

In Chapter 15, we focus on a particular type of group, the team. We discuss the differences between groups and teams, the importance of effective teamwork and how to encourage it, and why teams sometimes fail to achieve desired outcomes. We discuss the challenges that can come from cross-functional teams. We also examine a variety of team building techniques that readers can readily employ.

This chapter discusses and analyses the nature of convergence between languages which are either not closely related or entirely unrelated. Attention is given to the processes involved in linguistic convergence, with particular attention being given to the nature of linguistic areas. The question is asked, to what extent can the post-Darwinian language family tree model of descent and relationship, which works well for Indo-European, be applied to other proposed language families? The case study focusses on the potential for western and central Europe being a linguistic area.

While there are many different interpretations of critical pedagogy (Wink, 2011), at its heart is a genuine connection with learner lives and lifeworlds. In an era of increased standardisation, and calls for ‘back to basics’ education, critical pedagogy engages both learners and educators in working together as powerful creators of knowledge. In the process, the constructed nature of knowledge is made explicit (Lankshear, 1997). Learners whose ‘virtual schoolbags’ (Thomson, 2002), which are the rich knowledge and experience gained through social and cultural lifeworlds, are typically not invited into the classroom and therefore risk a life of disengagement from formal schooling. It is these learners who are most clearly poised to benefit from a critical pedagogic approach.

In Chapter 4, we conduct an in-depth exploration of norms at both the individual and group levels. We discuss how they develop, how they are classified, and the factors that encourage their acceptance by group members. We also discuss the collusive behavior and deviancy that can occur in groups and their connection to group norms.

Chapter 6 covers continental rifting and rift-related processes that operate when continental lithosphere is thinned and broken. It covers the two fundamental modes of rift initiation; active and passive rifting. It also cover the role of mantle plumes and pre-rift structures that weaken the lithosphere. Magmatism typically varies along rift systems and is often related to plume influence during rift initiation. The main structural elements of rifts are presented, from rift transfer zones to fault relay ramps, together with the evolution of rifts in terms of fault growth, strain, crustal thinning and rift (a)symmetry. While some rifts open orthogonally, most rifts experience oblique rifting. Other rifts again show evidence of two or more phases of extension, and the interference between the two phases in terms of fault orientation and interaction is discussed. Different tectonic settings, such as back-arc rifting, transform fault settings, and orogen-related rifting are covered. The deposition of sediments in relation to structural elements is important, and both synrift and postrift sedimentation are discussed. Rifts also host important hydrocarbon and mineral resources, and examples from northern Europe and North America are provided in this chapter.

This chapter introduces you to a relational approach to citizenship education, one that is grounded in how educators can and do engage children in coming together to interact with and learn from others in their communities. In this chapter, we are interested in a broad understanding of citizenship education, one which might be better understood as education for citizenship. While commonly understood as either a ‘status’ or a ‘practice’, this chapter argues that citizenship, above all else, concerns relationships. Recognising this fact requires us as educators to consider how civic relationships have been and are (often problematically) framed and how relational pedagogies can recognise and draw upon learners’ existing civic dispositions, might develop those civic dispositions further, and can build civically responsive educational settings. The chapter will provide a critical overview of relevant existing research on citizenship education before developing key features, including key pedagogical features, of a relational approach to citizenship education.

Chapter 1 introduces the reader to many of the topics and concepts that will be discussed in the book. The concept of a group and what differentiates it from a team, or a simple gathering of people is discussed. Additionally, the influence of social media on group establishment and membership is explored, along with a brief introduction to many other concepts. The chapter is intended to draw the reader in and to set the stage for much further and deeper investigation and discussion of the contents of the chapters that follow.

This chapter presents a synthesis of two key constructs: nature-based approaches and experiential learning. The first part of this chapter presents an overview of nature-based approaches. Research perspectives are presented to outline the importance of natural spaces in nurturing children and young people’s wellbeing, connection with nature, development of ecological awareness and holistic engagement with learning. Experiential learning theory is defined and described to examine the transformational potential of learning experienced outdoors. The interactive relationship and theoretical perspectives underlying experiential approaches are presented.

The second part of this chapter presents discussion on nature-based programs such as Forest Schools, Bush Kinders and Schools, and Nature/Environmental Kindergartens and Schools. Case studies will provide authentic contexts to highlight key aspects of intentional practice that enhance experiential learning and inquiry in nature-based settings. Finally, a synthesis of enabling practice is presented to further consider specific pedagogical implications underlying nature based approaches.

The Earth’s interior is the focus of this chapter, where we present the most important methods and data sources that allow us to gain information about the inside of our planet. Seismic waves give us refraction and reflection data and are used together with magnetic and gravity anomaly data in increasingly sophisticated ways. Seismic tomography is presented, which provides images and models of the interior. In this chapter it is shown how variations in S and P wave velocities are essential to our understanding of Earth’s interior, and how different kinds of geophysical data can be used to generate anomaly images that reflect rheologic variations, magma, partial melting and phase transformations. Some parts of the planet are dominated by descending cool lithosphere and mantle, while others are regions of net upwelling. The deep geodynamic processes are related to plate motions, but in a complex way that needs a better understanding.

In this first chapter, the concept of plate tectonics is briefly defined along with related terms such as tectonics, geotectonics, geodynamics and mantle dynamics. The uniqueness of Earth’s active plate tectonics is emphasized through comparisons with our neighboring planets, where asteroid impacts and volcanism tend to be important. Faults, folds and evidence of volcanism are common on many planets, but they are not related to plate tectonic processes. The Earth’s continents and oceans, zones of volcanism, seismic activity and topographic expression are not matched with any other planet in our solar system, and the chapter emphasizes that the plate tectonic model is able to explain first-order tectonic features and processes on Earth, and how it influences topography, climate and the evolution of life.