14A

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1 ἐάσετε Future of ἐάω.

2 ἣν This is accusative s. fem. of the relative pronoun: ‘she whom …’

3 ἣ What is this?

4 ἣ This has a smooth breathing, so it cannot be a relative pronoun. Try ‘or’.

5 ἐλήλνθεν What tense? What verb? Learn it!

6 ψηφιεῖσθεν This comes from ψηφίζομαι, whose future is ψηφιοῦμαι. Cf. νομίζω νομιέω.

8–9 πρίν is followed by two accusative and infinitive clauses ‘before she did x and y, and before you did z’. Do not translate πρότερον, which prepares for πρίν.

10 ἐπειδὴ δὲ πέπνσθε καὶ ἴστε … Notice the present force of the perfect ‘since you have found out and you all know (now, at this moment)’.

Translation for 14A

Gentlemen of the jury, will you then allow this Neaira to insult the city so disgracefully and so contemptuously, [this woman] who was neither left a citizen by her parents nor was she made a citizen by the people? Will you allow her to act irreverently towards the gods with impunity, she who has openly prostituted herself throughout the whole of Greece? For where has she not worked with her body? Or where has she not gone for her day-to-day earnings? Now that Neaira is clearly known by all as the kind of woman she is, will you vote that she is a citizen? And if you vote in this way, what fine thing will you say that you have accomplished to those who ask you?

Rem publicam, Quirites, uitamque omnium uestrum, bona, fortunas, coniuges liberosque uestros atque hoc domicilium clarissimi imperi, fortunatissimam pulcherrimamque urbem, hodierno die deorum immortalium summo erga uos amore, laboribus, consiliis, periculis meis e flamma atque ferro ac paene ex faucibus fati ereptam et uobis conseruatam ac restitutam uidetis. et si non minus nobis iucundi atque illustres sunt ii dies quibus conseruamur quam illi quibus nascimur, quod salutis certa laetitia est, nascendi incerta condicio et quod sine sensu nascimur, cum uoluptate seruamur, profecto quoniam illum qui hanc urbem condidit ad deos immortales beneuolentia famaque sustulimus, esse apud uos posterosque uestros in honore debebit is qui eandem hanc urbem conditam amplificatamque seruauit. nam toti urbi, templis, delubris, tectis ac moenibus subiectos prope iam ignes circumdatosque restinximus, idemque gladios in rem publicam destrictos rettudimus mucronesque eorum a iugulis uestris deiecimus. quae quoniam in senatu illustrata, patefacta, comperta sunt per me, uobis iam exponam breuiter, Quirites, ut et quanta et quam manifesta et qua ratione inuestigata et comprehensa sint uos qui et ignoratis et exspectatis scire possitis.

Principio ut Catilina paucis ante diebus erupit ex urbe, cum sceleris sui socios, huiusce nefarii belli acerrimos duces, Romae reliquisset, semper uigilaui et prouidi, Quirites, quem ad modum in tantis et tam absconditis insidiis salui esse possemus. nam tum cum ex urbe Catilinam eiciebam (non enim iam uereor huius uerbi inuidiam, cum illa magis sit timenda, quod uiuus exierit), sed tum cum illum exterminari uolebam, aut reliquam coniuratorum manum simul exituram aut eos qui restitis-sent infirmos sine illo ac debiles fore putabam.

In this section you are introduced to the verse of Greek Tragedy in a touching scene from Euripides' Alkestis (produced in 438 BC). Consult GE p. 310, #286 for a list of tragic usages. Note (e) here contains the warning: ‘Word order in verse can be far more flexible than in prose; again, utterances can be far more oblique and tightly packed with meaning.’ While it is probably true that you will find an increase of difficulty in this section, the Greek should prove manageable. We have tried to keep the translation as literal as possible throughout.

15A

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1 ἴστω The third person singular imperative of οἶδα (GE #207). οἶδα is followed by a participle (‘know that …’, see GE #247). The vocabulary tells you that κατθανουμένη is the future participle of καταθθνῄσκω.

εὐκλεές = ‘a glorious [woman]’. It is easiest to translate it as an adverb, ‘gloriously’.

3 πῶς δ' οὐκ …; πῶς γὰρ οὔ (literally ‘for how not?’ = ‘of course’) has appeared from Section 1 onwards.

4–5 Difficult. Consult the translation.

11 ἐκ … ἑλοῦσα This splitting of a verb from its prepositional prefix is called ‘tmesis’ (‘cutting’). It is quite common in verse authors, but it is not always easy to recognise whether the preposition is there in its own right or if it is a case of ‘tmesis’.

13 ‘Εστία Hestia is the goddess of the hearth, crucial for the continued existence of the home.

To produce a new commented edition of Cicero's Catilinarians may seem like a woefully unoriginal, if not altogether superfluous undertaking. There are, of course, various commentaries, mostly of nineteenth- and early twentieth-century vintage, intended to introduce this corpus to school children. But in the latter half of the twentieth century interest in producing such works tapered off as the traditional classical curriculum came under fire and lists of set books were altered in the hope of reinvigorating the subject. In addition, the palpable decline of oratory in the political life of the Western democracies made C.'s products seem less relevant to contemporary concerns. Last, but not least, the negative assessment of C. by W. Drumann and T. Mommsen has often colored the judgment of subsequent historians of antiquity and thus fed a neglect of, if not outright hostility to, C. and his work.

The fact that his place in the curriculum can no longer be taken for granted may prompt some salutary reflection on C. and his educational uses. Blind hero-worship is clearly inappropriate, as Petrarch already realized upon discovery of C.'s letters. But the fact that C., too, was human makes him more, not less interesting. His creation of a distinctive and powerful prose style exploiting to the full the resources and registers of the Latin of his day commands, or should command, admiration in an age when language and style tend to be handled carelessly.

CATILINE'S CAREER DOWN TO 63

For most of his life, Lucius Sergius Catilina, or Catiline, as he has come to be known in English, looked like anything but a revolutionary. He was the scion of an old patrician family, the gens Sergia, which gave its name to one of the Roman tribes; and Virgil glorified, if he did not invent altogether, an eponymous ancestor, Sergestus, as one of the Trojan heroes who migrated to Italy with Aeneas (Aen. 5.121). Even his adversary C. was able, in the very different context of a lawcourt speech, to express a certain appreciation for the attractive features of Catiline's many-faceted personality (Cael. 12–14).

Catiline's great-grandfather, M. Sergius Silus, had distinguished himself in the Hannibalic War (without, however, rising above praetorian rank). As praetor of the year 68, Catiline must have been born by 108 (or 106 on the assumption that patricians had the option of presenting themselves two years early). He substituted an individual cognomen for the inherited Silus but followed the family tradition of military service. The beginnings of his military career are lost unless he is to be identified with the L. Sergius L.f. attested as a member of the consilium of the consul Cn. Pompeius Strabo in 89 during the Social War.

Odour and taste

Considerable odour and taste problems develop while the water is in the distribution system due to the material from which the mains are constructed, or the effect of biological growths on the walls of the pipes. However, most problems originate either in the raw water (Chapter 8) or from the treatment plant (Chapter 16). The water supply company is careful to eliminate these as possible sources of odour before testing the water within the distribution system to isolate the problem area (Figure 8.1).

The major complaint arising from the distribution system is that of musty–earthy odour (Figure 8.2). These are due to the development of micro-organisms on the walls of the distribution network. Although actinomycetes and fungi are generally responsible, heterotrophic bacteria can also cause similar problems if present in large numbers. This suggests that a high activity of any micro-organism, regardless of its identity, may result in odours. A number of steps can be taken to reduce microbial growth within the distribution system, the main one being to ensure adequate disinfection with sufficient residual chlorine. Other methods include reducing the amount of organic matter and nutrients in the water by more effective treatment (Chapter 14) and using new pipe materials that do not encourage microbial development. The growth of actinomycetes and fungi is controlled primarily by temperature, with optimum growth occurring at 25°C. At temperatures below 16°C growth is so reduced that complaints due to odour are generally eliminated. It is therefore essential to prevent water in distribution systems from standing for long periods and warming up. During warm weather conditions it is possible for many supplies to reach ambient temperatures as a consequence of this long residence time, thus encouraging the unwanted growth of micro-organisms. Long residence times also encourage organic material to flocculate and settle, which then acts as a source of food for micro-organisms and small animals (Chapter 24).

Iron

Iron is an extremely common metal and is found in large amounts in soil and rocks, although normally in an insoluble form. However, due to a number of complex reactions that occur naturally in the ground, soluble forms of iron can be formed, which can then contaminate any water passing through. Therefore excess iron is a common phenomenon of groundwaters, especially those found in soft groundwater areas.

Iron is an essential element and is very unlikely to cause a threat to health at the concentrations occasionally recorded in water supplies. It is undesirable in excessive amounts and can cause a number of problems. Iron is soluble in the ferrous state (Fe2+) and is oxidized in the presence of air to the insoluble ferric form (Fe3+), so when groundwaters are anaerobic, or have low dissolved oxygen concentrations, all the iron will be in a soluble form. Oxygen can enter aquifers via boreholes. This, combined with the removal of carbon dioxide from solution, raises the pH and causes iron in the groundwater to precipitate out as ferric hydroxide (solubility threshold pH 4.2). Even small changes in water chemistry can affect iron solubility, and the conditions in many groundwaters are on the boundary between soluble and insoluble iron (Figure 9.1). At the treatment plant most of the iron is removed by aerating the water or by using coagulants, with the particles of insoluble iron removed by filtration. In private supplies the water will only start to become aerated as it enters the storage tank. Here the ferric iron particles will settle to the bottom of the tank and form an orange sediment, which can then be re-suspended when large volumes of water are being drawn from the tank. Alternatively, as the water leaves the tap it is very effectively aerated and it is here the water may become discoloured and turbid. Sediment will also form in the pipe-work and this will contribute to the discolouration of the water.

Introduction

The fluoridation of water supplies has been as controversial in the past as trace organics in water is today. It was introduced in the 1940s to reduce the incidence of tooth decay in the population after a number of surveys in the USA had shown that it had a beneficial effect. Three relationships were identified: (1) fluoride levels in excess of 1.5 mg 1−1 led to an increase in the occurrence and severity of dental fluorosis (i.e. teeth became mottled and brittle) without decreasing the incidence of decay, missing or filled teeth; (2) at 1.0 mg 1−1 there was the maximum reduction of decay with no fluorosis; and (3) at concentrations less than 1.0 mg 1−1 some benefit was observed. With decreasing concentrations of fluoride in water there was an increase in the incidence of tooth decay.

These studies therefore showed that the addition of fluoride to water supplies to bring the level above 0.6 mg 1−1 led to a reduction in tooth decay in growing children, and that the optimum beneficial effect occurred around 1.0 mg 1−1. Other studies have indicated that fluoride is also beneficial to older people in reducing the hardening of the arteries and, as fluoride stimulates bone formation, in the treatment of osteoporosis, although the most recent evidence contradicts this (Cooper et al., 1990). These early studies were so convincing that fluoridation was adopted around the world, so that today over 250 million people drink artificially fluoridated water. In the USA, for example, over half of the water supplies are fluoridated. It is widely used in New Zealand, Canada and Australia; in fact, it is widespread in most English-speaking countries. Brazil and the former Soviet Union are two other countries with a strict fluoridation policy. In the Republic of Ireland all water supplies are fluoridated where the natural levels are less than 1.0 mg 1−1, none are fluoridated in Northern Ireland and only about 10% of supplies are fluoridated in the UK.

Introduction

The hardness or softness of water varies from place to place and reflects the nature of the geology of the area with which the water has been in contact. In general, surface waters are softer than groundwaters. Hard waters are associated with chalk and limestone catchment areas, whereas soft waters are associated with impermeable rocks such as granite (Section 4.4). Water hardness is a traditional measure of the ability of water to react with soap to produce a lather, and for most consumers the problems associated with washing, and also the scaling of pipes and household appliances that use water, are the two major factors of concern.

An alternative measure of hardness is total dissolved solids (TDS), which is a measure of the total concentration of ions in water. The TDS in groundwater is often an order of magnitude higher than in surface waters. In aquifers the TDS increases with depth due to less fresh recharge water to dilute existing groundwater and the longer period for ions to be dissolved. The older and deeper the groundwater the more mineral rich the water becomes resulting in quite saline water. High concentrations of salts in groundwaters are often due to over-abstraction or to drought conditions when old saline groundwaters may enter boreholes through upward replacement, or due to saline intrusion into the aquifer from the sea. In Europe conductivity is used as a replacement for TDS measurement and is widely used to measure the degree of mineralization of groundwaters (Table 4.5).

Chemistry of hardness

Hardness is caused by metal cations such as calcium (Ca2+), but in fact all divalent cations cause hardness (Table 10.1). They react with certain anions such as carbonate or sulphate to form a precipitate. Monovalent cations such as sodium (Na+) do not affect hardness. Strontium, ferrous iron (Fe2+) and manganese are usually such minor components of hardness that they are generally ignored, with the total hardness taken to be the sum of the calcium and magnesium concentrations.

Introduction

There are three different groups of micro-organisms that can be transmitted via drinking water: protozoa, viruses and bacteria (Section 3.2) (Table 13.1). They are all transmitted by the faecal-oral route and so largely arise either directly or indirectly by contamination of water resources by sewage or, increasingly, animal wastes. It is theoretically possible, but unlikely, that other pathogenic organisms such as nematodes (roundworm and hookworm) and cestodes (tapeworm) may also be transmitted via drinking water (Gray, 2004).

Protozoa

There are two protozoa frequently found in drinking water that are known to be responsible for outbreaks of disease (Table 13.1). These are Cryptosporidium and Giardia lamblia.

13.2.1 Cryptosporidium

This parasitic protozoan is widely distributed in nature, infecting a wide range of animal hosts including pets and farm animals. However, it was only relatively recently that it was found to be a human pathogen as well. The first recorded case of human infection occurred as recently as 1976. The problem is that the protozoa form protective stages known as oocysts that allow them to survive for long periods in water while waiting to be ingested by a host. They are also able to complete their life cycle in just a single host as well as having an autoinfection capacity (Fayer and Ungar, 1986). Once infected the host is a lifetime carrier and is subject to relapses. In normal patients the protozoa give rise to a self-limiting gastroenteritis that lasts for up to two weeks, with children more at risk than adults. If the patient is immunosuppressed, infection will be life threatening. For example, it is a major cause of death among patients with AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome). Two peaks in the number of infections are seen each year, one in the spring and another in the autumn.

The oocysts of Cryptosporidium are only 4–7μm in diameter and so are difficult to remove from raw waters by conventional treatment.

Micro-organisms in plumbing systems

We have seen that the contamination of drinking water by pathogenic and non-pathogenic micro-organisms occurs mainly at source (Chapter 13), although contamination can also occur during treatment or within the distribution systems (Chapters 19 and 25). The contamination of otherwise potable water can also occur within the consumer's premises. This is generally due to the type of plumbing system installed, a lack of basic maintenance and the careless use of appliances.

The householder is responsible for the maintenance and repair of the supply pipe, which runs from the water supply company's connection pipe at the boundary stop-tap to the house. All the water entering the house passes through this pipe so any fracture will allow possible contamination to enter. Sewerage pipes should be located well away from the supply pipe, preferably on the other side of the building.

Back-syphonage in plumbing systems is more of a problem in older buildings as modern building regulations and water byelaws incorporate measures to prevent it. It generally occurs when a rising main supplying more than one floor suffers a loss of pressure at a low point in the system, causing a partial vacuum in the rising main. Atmospheric pressure on the surface of, for example, a bath full of water on an upper floor in which a hose extension or a shower attachment from an open tap has been left, will push the contents of the bath back up through the hose and tap into the plumbing system to fill the partial vacuum. Plumbing systems suffer from constant changes in pressure, so care should always be taken when hoses are left to run water into containers. Farmers, who often need to fill large pesticide sprayers with water, need to take special care to ensure that the end of the hosepipe is never allowed to fall below the liquid surface in case of back- syphonage. This is extremely important if private supplies are pumped by a submersible pumping system from an underground storage tank.