This chapter describes professional issues within clinical psychology. It includes summaries of several national conferences on training, the development of the doctor of psychology (PsyD) degree, and the establishment of the clinical scientist model, the scientist-practitioner model, and the practitioner-scholar model of clinical training. It also outlines the contours of professional regulation including via certification and licensure by state clinical psychology boards, and the American Board of Professional Psychology. It also discusses the ethical standards of the American Psychological Association, and regulation of clinical psychologists’ behavior by the APA ethics committee and state licensing boards. The chapter tells the story of how clinical psychologists gained the right to practice psychotherapy independently and to receive insurance coverage for mental health services, summarizes the impact of changes in the economics of mental health service delivery, and provides the latest information on the controversy over clinicians’ right to prescribe medication. There is also a review of efforts being made to enhance clinicians’ multicultural competence and, based on historical and current forces in the field, a set of predictions about where clinical psychology is heading in the future.

Logic Theorist was the first artificially intelligent program, created in 1955 by Allen Newell and Herbert Simon, and actually predating the term “artificial intelligence,” which was introduced the next year. Logic Theorist could apply the rules of symbolic logic to prove mathematical theorems – the first time a computer accomplished a task considered solely within the domain of human intelligence. Given a starting statement, it applied logical laws to generate a set of new statements, then recursively continued the process. Eventually, this procedure would discover a chain of logical transformations that connected the starting statement to the desired final statement. Applied naively, this process would generate an intractable number of possible paths, but Logic Theorist had the ability to detect and discard infeasible paths that couldn’t lead to a solution.

Although people may – as some psychologists argue -- be born with a tendency to become believers, specific religious traditions are cultural products that must be acquired through learning and socialization. In addition, religious beliefs and behaviors take on different meanings at different ages. This chapter starts with a discussion of religious socialization and the developmental psychology of religion. The chapter includes a detailed section on religious socialization in summer camps. Next, we examine the large body of research on the psychology of prayer. Psychologists of religion argue that even if prayer involves some matters beyond the reach of science, important aspects of the prayer experience can be addressed using good scientific practice. T. M. Luhrmann’s important work is considered in some detail; she argues that, ultimately, through prayer, religious believers start to experience part of their own minds as the presence of God. The chapter concludes with two comprehensive sections on: (1) religious and mystical experiences and (2) identity and religion. For some people, religious identity is closely tied to ethnic, racial, national, professional, and familial identities; indeed, religious identity may be derived from these other identities.

Very often, software developers need to evaluate the trade-offs between different approaches to solving a problem. Do you want the fastest solution, even if it’s difficult to implement and maintain? Will your code still be useful if you have to process 100 times as much data? What if an algorithm is fast for some inputs but terrible for others? Algorithm analysis is the framework that computer scientists use to understand the trade-offs between algorithms. Algorithm analysis is primarily theoretical: It focuses on the fundamental properties of algorithms, and not on systems, languages, or any particular details of their implementations.

This chapter introduces the key concepts of algorithm analysis, starting from the practical example of searching an array for a value of interest. We’ll start by making experimental comparisons between two searching methods: a simple linear search and the more complex binary search. The second part of the chapter introduces one of the most important mathematical tools in computer science, Big-O notation, the primary tool for algorithm analysis.

NWP is an initial/boundary value problem: given an estimate of the present state of the atmosphere (initial conditions) and appropriate boundary conditions, the model simulates (forecasts) the atmospheric evolution. More accurate estimates of initial conditions lead to better forecasts. Currently, operational NWP centers produce initial conditions through a statistical combination of observations and short-range forecasts that account for the uncertainty associated with each source of information. This approach has become known as “data assimilation.” In this chapter, we review early attempts at data assimilation and then introduce the statistical estimation methods that provide a solid foundation for data assimilation. Examples using toy models are provided to illustrate the principles of data assimilation. We then discuss in detail all state-of-the-art data assimilation methods adopted in operational centers, including optimal interpolation, 3D-Var, 4D-Var, ensemble Kalman filter, and hybrid methods. Specifically, we discuss several improvements for the ensemble Kalman filter that make it competitive with 4D-Var. We also discuss Ensemble Forecast Sensitivity to Observations (EFSO), a powerful tool that can estimate the impact of any observations on short-range forecasts, and then we discuss the proactive quality control (PQC) built upon EFSO. We also briefly introduce the non-Gaussian assimilation method particle filters.

In recent decades, scientific efforts to probe religious behavior and mental states have increased markedly in quantity and sophistication, yet the fascinating story of the psychology of religion remains unfamiliar not only to the general public, but also to many social scientists. This chapter starts with case studies of how religion has functioned in several prominent human lives. We consider why the psychology of religion matters and delve deeply into the many problems associated with defining religion, spirituality and the psychology of religion. The psychology of religion probes religious beliefs, attitudes, behaviors, emotions, experiences, and relationships, paying particular attention to the consequences of religion for health, well-being, morality and social relations. Scholars debate: (1) the importance of the field’s history and grand theories, (2) the acceptability of the historical emphasis on Western Christianity, (3) the generalizability of much empirical work, (4) the meaning of spirituality outside of religion, and (5) whether the discipline is biased in favor of or against religion.

This chapter describes two specialized fields of clinical psychology, namely clinical child psychology and geropsychology. It provides a brief history of each field and describes the unique characteristics of clients who are young and who are old. It also describes the special features of the assessment methods that clinicians use with both types of clients, and outlines some of the most common disorders of childhood, adolescence, and old age. The chapter also includes a summary of empirically supported treatments that are available to address these problems and highlights the special ethical considerations required when doing so.