Chapter 8 sets out a framework for predicting and evaluating chilling effects, including balancing them against competing chilling effects claims or competing values or public policy concerns, like speech and national security. The chapter illustrates the framework via three case studies: (1) the right to be forgotten (the privacy chill such a right may prevent vs. the chill the right may have on speech and other activities); (2) anti-stalking laws (balancing their benefits vs. their potential chilling effects); (3) national security surveillance and its secrecy (balancing national security justifications vs. their potential chilling effects).

The 10-item Attunement with Exercise Scale (AwE; Calogero et al., 2024) assesses the extent to which a person’s physical activity experiences reflect joy and connection with their body and safety during exercise. The AwE can be administered online and/or in-person to adolescents and/or adults and is free to use in any setting. This chapter first discusses the development of the AwE and then provides evidence of its psychometrics. More specifically, the AwE has been found to have a 3-factor structure within exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses and has demonstrated invariance between women and men. Internal consistency reliability, test-retest reliability, convergent validity, discriminant validity, and incremental validity support the use of the AwE. Next, this chapter provides the AwE items in their entirety, instructions for administering the AwE to participants, the item response scale, and the scoring procedure. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are provided for readers.

The 28-item Body Esteem Scale-Revised (BES-R; Frost et al., 2018) is an updated version of the Body Esteem Scale (Franzoi & Shields, 1984) that assesses satisfaction with the appearance and functionality of 28 specific body areas and aspects of body functionality. Like the original scale, the BES-R conceptualizes body esteem as both gender-specific and multidimensional, with three distinct dimensions for women (i.e., sexual attractiveness, weight concern, physical condition) and three distinct dimensions for men (i.e., sexual attractiveness, upper body strength, physical condition). The BES-R can be administered online or in-person to adolescents and adults and is free to use. Women and men complete the same 28 items. This chapter first discusses the development of the BES-R and then provides evidence of its psychometrics. Principal components analyses upheld the three dimensions of body esteem for men and the three dimensions of body esteem for women. Internal consistency reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity support the use of the BES-R. This chapter provides the BES-R scale items, instructions for administering the measure to participants, the item response scale, and the scoring procedure. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and citation information, are also provided for readers.

Chapter 2 critically examines privacy-based conventional theories, which approach chilling effects as a result of privacy harms. While privacy-based theories of chilling effects improve on legal accounts, they are also too narrow and cannot explain chilling effects in a variety of contexts, including even forms of privacy-related chilling effects. Moreover, courts and judges have also remained deeply skeptical of privacy-based theories. To address these limitations and fully understand the threat chilling effects pose to freedom, fundamental rights, and democracy we need a new understanding of chilling effects that moves beyond conventional accounts.

The 9-item Broad Conceptualization of Beauty Scale (Tylka & Iannantuono, 2016) assesses the extent to which individuals are able to perceive a wide range of physical appearances as beautiful, whether these appearances are largely unchangeable (e.g., body shape) or more easily modifiable (e.g., personal style, dress), and draw from inner characteristics (e.g., confidence, self-acceptance) when defining beauty. While originally designed for female respondents, the BCBS was modified to be gender neutral. The BCBS can be administered online or in-person to adolescents and adults and is free to use. This chapter first discusses the development of the BCBS and then provides evidence of its psychometrics. More specifically, the BCBS has been found to have a unidimensional factor structure within exploratory and/or confirmatory factor analyses. Internal consistency reliability, test-retest reliability, convergent validity, discriminant validity, and incremental validity support the use of the BCBS. Next, this chapter provides the BCBS items in their entirety, instructions for administering the BCBS to participants, the item response scale, and the scoring procedure. Links to known translations are included. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are available for readers.

This chapter reviews the psychological research examining the relationship between religious faith and life purpose. First, because defining the constructs of religious faith and life purpose have been such an empirically challenging task, the author offers various definitions adopted in the social sciences. Second, the author describes theoretical propositions about possible mechanisms that help to explain why religious faith contributes to life purpose. Although research is limited, the author then reviews the empirical literature that has addressed the link between religious faith and life purpose, including findings to date that suggest that various religious faith constructs may play a key role in cultivating one’s sense of life purpose. The author also reviews the literature that has examined the complex relationships between religious faith, life purpose, and well-being. Throughout, the author offers suggestions for future research to advance the science examining religious faith and life purpose. The chapter closes with a discussion of the implications of this research to inform understandings of the development and importance of religious faith, and life purpose to optimal human functioning.

Decision-making is vital in our daily living. Through the following book, readers will develop an understanding of decision-making from the underlying anatomy through to the complexities of free will.

The 13-item Appearance-Related Social Media Consciousness Scale (ASMC Scale; Choukas-Bradley et al., 2020) assesses appearance-related social media consciousness (ASMC) – i.e., ongoing awareness of one’s physical attractiveness to an online audience. The ASMC Scale can be administered online or in-person to adolescents and adults and is free to use in any setting. In this chapter, we discuss the development of the scale and provide evidence of its psychometric properties. The ASMC Scale is unidimensional, with evidence of partial measurement invariance across gender (comparing girls/women and boys/men). Internal consistency reliability, test-retest reliability, convergent validity, discriminant validity, and incremental validity support the use of the scale with adolescents and adults. Next, we provide the ASMC Scale items in their entirety, instructions for administering the scale to participants, the response scale, the scoring procedure, and information about known translations (Chinese/Mandarin, Spanish, Turkish). Additionally, we provide logistical information, such as permissions, copyright, contact information, and considerations for alterations (e.g., related to short-term video-based social media). We also discuss initial findings related to ASMC, including gender differences in mean levels (with girls/women reporting higher levels of ASMC than boys/men), and evidence of associations between ASMC and offline body image and mental health constructs.

Self-discovery characterizes the late teens and early twenties. Accordingly, many young people turn to colleges and universities – with their expansive resources for occupational, ideological, and interpersonal exploration – to help them clarify who they are and where they are going in life. Although changes in identity and self-direction are normative, perhaps even expected, parts of one’s journey through college, people vary in their ability to find threads of continuity within themselves in the face of change. This leaves many of them feeling unstable and disconnected from the people they were in the past. A sense of being “off-course” in life is known as derailment and is consistently related to elevated levels of concurrent psychological distress. As demand for mental health services on college campuses rises across the nation, derailment represents a potentially salient experience that can help educators and practitioners better address the developmental needs of their students. In this chapter, I review the features of emerging adulthood before unpacking derailment and what it could mean within the landscape of this period. Then, against the backdrop of existing identity and purpose formation literature, I explore the alignment between current United States (US) college structures and the developmental needs of students, theorizing on how traditional institutional policies, practices, and opportunities encourage or discourage derailment during a student’s tenure. Finally, I close by looking ahead to the future, calling for empirical investigation of how higher education can support young people in finding a balance between maintaining personal stability and undergoing radical personal change.

The 45-item Eating Pathology Symptoms Inventory (EPSI; Forbush et al., 2013) is a self-report, multidimensional measure of cognitions/behaviors associated with eating disorder diagnoses. The EPSI includes body image-related constructs such as body dissatisfaction and muscle building, in addition to six other scales. The EPSI can be administered on paper for free and without formal permissions to adults and adolescents. Administering the EPSI online requires written permission from the copyright holder; see the chapter for additional permissions, copyright, and contact information. This chapter briefly details the development of the EPSI and evidence for its psychometric properties. The EPSI has an eight-factor structure based on confirmatory factor analyses, and has demonstrated favorable structural similarity (e.g., different types of invariance) across men and women, different weight statuses, and adolescents and adults. The EPSI has also demonstrated favorable internal consistency reliability, test-retest reliability, convergent validity with related measures, discriminant validity from measures of negative affect and internalizing symptoms, and criterion-related validity by discriminating between different eating disorders. A description of instructions and scale/scoring, more specific information about the body dissatisfaction and muscle building scales, and a link to the full EPSI are provided. Information about an abbreviated version and translations is also included.

The Muscle Pictorial Measure (MPM; Gillen & Markey, 2015) is a figural drawing measure that assesses body perceptions. The discrepancy between perceived and ideal figures within the scale represents muscle dissatisfaction. The scale can be administered in-person or online to adults and is free to use in any research setting. This chapter first discusses the rationale for developing the MPM and then provides evidence of its psychometric properties. The scale has separate versions for men- and women-identifying participants. Because these scales are gender-specific, raw scores on each version cannot be compared; discrepancy scores must be calculated instead. The scale has established two-week test-retest reliability, and convergent validity as a measure of ideal muscularity among men. Participants of different racial/ethnic backgrounds identify with the figures. This chapter provides the MPM items in their entirety (including optional items), instructions for administering the MPM to participants, and the scoring procedure. Logistics of use, such as permissions, copyright, and contact information, are provided for readers.

In Great Britain, the Equality Act 2010 provides protection from discrimination across services, work, and education. Given its application across contexts, a non-prescriptive, case-by-case approach considering the context and available evidence is taken to determine whether employment decisions have a discriminatory impact. When there is a claim of unlawful discrimination, employers may be required to provide relevant evidence that the selection procedure represents a proportionate means of achieving a legitimate aim. Where it is more prescriptive is in cases of indirect discrimination (disparate impact), with its two-step process for burden of proof, where claimants must first provide sufficient evidence of unlawful discrimination before employers must then provide adequate evidence against the case. However, methods and thresholds for testing disparate impact are not defined. As such, practitioners in the UK can look to guidance and regulations in other more stringent jurisdictions, such as the US, where guidance is more developed, for best practices regarding specific approaches to testing for bias and fairness in selection procedures.

This chapter explores how undergraduate students’ purpose and motivation for attending postsecondary education contribute to their retention, persistence, and graduation. As a lens for understanding these dynamics, this chapter provides an overview of the Interdisciplinary Theory of College Student Success, which posits that students ask several key questions that determine whether they stay in higher education; one of those questions pertains to their purpose for pursuing a degree and remaining at their current institution. According to this framework, there is not a single “best” type of purpose, since students have different motivations that can drive them to persist in the face of challenges and setbacks. The theory also highlights the role of educational intentions as a key driver of college decision-making. This chapter then discusses research that has directly explored students’ purposes for attending college, which often suggests that the development of purpose and educational intentions are informed by students’ identities and socialization.

Artists can get their first inspiration for what they want to do in their lives when they see another person’s work. Early encounters with theater, television shows, movies, books, or music can serve as catalysts for a lifetime in the arts. At the most fundamental level, experiencing the art of others can demonstrate that such a career pathway is possible. In this chapter, artists remember moments of seeing, hearing, watching, or experiencing a life-changing piece of art. Some artists continue in that specific domain, whereas others might be initially inspired by one domain but find a better artistic home in another domain. An artist’s early efforts may even be directly inspired by another piece of work.