The chapter describes the main nature conservation challenges in Latvia, its main policy responses and actions, and their achievements and lessons, primarily over the last 40 years. This covers the country’s natural characteristics, habitats and species of particular importance; the status of nature and main pressures affecting it; nature conservation policies (including biodiversity strategies), legislation, governance and key actors; species measures; protected areas and networks; general conservation measures (e.g. development planning and impact assessment, and management and restoration of coastal habitats, rivers, grasslands, mires and forests); nature conservation costs, economic benefits and funding sources; and biodiversity monitoring. Likely future developments are also identified. Conclusions are drawn on what measures have been most effective and why, and what is needed to improve the implementation of existing measures and achieve future nature conservation goals.

The chapter describes the main nature conservation challenges in Croatia, its main policy responses and actions, and their achievements and lessons, primarily over the last 40 years. This covers the country’s natural characteristics, habitats and species of particular importance; the status of nature and main pressures affecting it; nature conservation policies (including biodiversity strategies), legislation, governance and key actors; species measures (e.g. management of large carnivore populations); protected areas and networks; general conservation measures (e.g. management of agricultural habitats, and water management); nature conservation costs and main funding sources; and biodiversity monitoring. Likely future developments are also identified. Conclusions are drawn on what measures have been most effective and why, and what is needed to improve the implementation of existing measures and achieve future nature conservation goals.

The chapter describes the main nature conservation challenges in Italy, its main policy responses and actions, and their achievements and lessons, primarily over the last 40 years. This covers the country’s natural characteristics, habitats and species of particular importance; the status of nature and main pressures affecting it; nature conservation policies (including biodiversity strategies), legislation, governance and key actors; species measures (e.g. regulation of hunting and poaching, and species recovery and action plans); protected areas and networks; general conservation measures (e.g. development planning, and management of High Nature Value farmland); nature conservation costs, economic benefits and funding sources; and biodiversity monitoring. Likely future developments are also identified. Conclusions are drawn on what measures have been most effective and why, and what is needed to improve the implementation of existing measures and achieve future nature conservation goals.

The chapter describes the main nature conservation challenges in Romania, its main policy responses and actions, and their achievements and lessons, primarily over the last 40 years. This covers the country’s natural characteristics, habitats and species of particular importance; the status of nature and main pressures affecting it; nature conservation policies (including biodiversity strategies), legislation, governance and key actors; species measures (e.g. concerning hunting, and large carnivores); protected areas and networks; general conservation measures (e.g. for coastal habitats and the Danube Delta, High Nature Value farmland and forests); nature conservation costs and funding sources; and biodiversity monitoring. Likely future developments are also identified. Conclusions are drawn on what measures have been most effective and why, and what is needed to improve the implementation of existing measures and achieve future nature conservation goals.

The chapter describes the main nature conservation challenges in Finland, its main policy responses and actions, and their achievements and lessons, primarily over the last 40 years. This covers the country’s natural characteristics, habitats and species of particular importance; the status of nature and main pressures affecting it; nature conservation policies (including biodiversity strategies), legislation, governance and key actors; species measures (e.g. for large carnivores); protected areas and networks; general conservation measures (e.g. the management and restoration of agricultural habitats and forests, tackling alien invasive species, and climate change adaptation); nature conservation costs, economic benefits and funding sources; and biodiversity monitoring. Likely future developments are also identified. Conclusions are drawn on what measures have been most effective and why, and what is needed to improve the implementation of existing measures and achieve future nature conservation goals.

The chapter describes the main nature conservation challenges in Belgium, its main policy responses and actions, and their achievements and lessons, primarily over the last 40 years. This covers the country’s natural characteristics, habitats and species of particular importance; the status of nature and main pressures affecting it; nature conservation policies (including biodiversity strategies), legislation, governance and key actors; species measures (e.g. the national bee plan); protected areas and their management; general conservation measures (e.g. management of High Nature Value farmland and use of agri-environment schemes, forest management, and habitat restoration); nature conservation costs, economic benefits and funding sources; and biodiversity monitoring. Likely future developments are also identified. Conclusions are drawn on what measures have been most effective and why, and what is needed to improve the implementation of existing measures and achieve future nature conservation goals.

The chapter describes the main nature conservation challenges in Hungary, its main policy responses and actions, and their achievements and lessons, primarily over the last 40 years. This covers the country’s natural characteristics, habitats and species of particular importance; the status of nature and main pressures affecting it; nature conservation policies (including biodiversity strategies), legislation, governance and key actors; species measures (e.g. Species Action Plans); protected areas and networks; general conservation measures (e.g. agri-environment schemes, addressing alien invasive species, and nature-based solutions and climate change adaptation); nature conservation costs, economic benefits and funding sources; and biodiversity monitoring. Likely future developments are also identified. Conclusions are drawn on what measures have been most effective and why, and what is needed to improve the implementation of existing measures and achieve future nature conservation goals.

The chapter describes the main nature conservation challenges in Sweden, its main policy responses and actions, and their achievements and lessons, primarily over the last 40 years. This covers the country’s natural characteristics, habitats and species of particular importance; the status of nature and main pressures affecting it; nature conservation policies (including biodiversity strategies), legislation, governance and key actors; species measures; protected areas and networks; general conservation measures (e.g. development planning, offsetting and compensation measures, management of natural forest habitats, and hydropower permitting); nature conservation costs, economic benefits and funding sources; and biodiversity monitoring. Likely future developments are also identified. Conclusions are drawn on what measures have been most effective and why, and what is needed to improve the implementation of existing measures and achieve future nature conservation goals.

The chapter describes the main nature conservation challenges in Estonia, its main policy responses and actions, and their achievements and lessons, primarily over the last 40 years. This covers the country’s natural characteristics, habitats and species of particular importance; the status of nature and main pressures affecting it; nature conservation policies (including biodiversity strategies), legislation, governance and key actors; species measures (e.g. Species Action Plans and Management Plans); protected areas and networks; general conservation measures (e.g. forestry and biodiversity conservation, and the restoration of grasslands, mires and rivers); nature conservation costs, economic benefits and funding sources; and biodiversity monitoring. Likely future developments are also identified. Conclusions are drawn on what measures have been most effective and why, and what is needed to improve the implementation of existing measures and achieve future nature conservation goals.

The chapter describes the main nature conservation challenges in the United Kingdom, its main policy responses and actions, and their achievements and lessons, primarily over the last 40 years. This covers the country’s natural characteristics, habitats and species of particular importance; the status of nature and main pressures affecting it; nature conservation policies (including post-Brexit), legislation, governance and key actors; species measures (e.g. concerning persecution of birds of prey, strictly protected species, and species reintroductions); protected areas and networks; general conservation measures (e.g. development planning and biodiversity offsetting, marine spatial planning, peatland and coastal habitat restoration, forest expansion, rewilding, and climate change adaptation); nature conservation costs, economic benefits and funding sources; and biodiversity monitoring. Likely future developments are also identified, including potential divergence from EU nature legislation. Conclusions are drawn on what measures have been most effective and why, and what is needed to improve the implementation of existing measures and achieve future nature conservation goals.

The chapter describes the main nature conservation challenges in Lithuania, its main policy responses and actions, and their achievements and lessons, primarily over the last 40 years. This covers the country’s natural characteristics, habitats and species of particular importance; the status of nature and main pressures affecting it; nature conservation policies (including biodiversity strategies), legislation, governance and key actors; species measures (e.g. Species Conservation Plans and Species Action Plans); protected areas and networks; general conservation measures (e.g. development planning, and forest management); nature conservation costs, economic benefits and funding sources; and biodiversity monitoring. Likely future developments are also identified. Conclusions are drawn on what measures have been most effective and why, and what is needed to improve the implementation of existing measures and achieve future nature conservation goals.

The chapter describes the main nature conservation challenges in Spain, its main policy responses and actions, and their achievements and lessons, primarily over the last 40 years. This covers the country’s natural characteristics, habitats and species of particular importance; the status of nature and main pressures affecting it; nature conservation policies (including biodiversity strategies), legislation, governance and key actors; species measures including Conservation Strategies and Species Recovery Plans (e.g. for birds of prey and large carnivores and) and dealing with conflicts (e.g. concerning the Wolf Canis lupus); protected areas and networks; general conservation measures (e.g. relating to afforestation and reforestation, habitat restoration, invasive alien species, and climate change adaptation); nature conservation costs, economic benefits and funding sources; and biodiversity monitoring. Likely future developments are also identified. Conclusions are drawn on what measures have been most effective and why, and what is needed to improve the implementation of existing measures and achieve future nature conservation goals.

The chapter describes the main nature conservation challenges in Austria, its main policy responses and actions, and their achievements and lessons, primarily over the last 40 years. This covers the country’s natural characteristics, habitats and species of particular importance; the status of nature and main pressures affecting it; nature conservation policies (including biodiversity strategies), legislation, governance and key actors; species measures (e.g. re-introduction programmes); protected areas and networks; general conservation measures (e.g. agri-environment schemes); nature conservation costs, economic benefits and funding sources; and biodiversity monitoring. Likely future developments are also identified. Conclusions are drawn on what measures have been most effective and why, and what is needed to improve the implementation of existing measures and achieve future nature conservation goals.

The chapter describes the main nature conservation challenges in Slovenia, its main policy responses and actions, and their achievements and lessons, primarily over the last 40 years. This covers the country’s natural characteristics, habitats and species of particular importance; the status of nature and main pressures affecting it; nature conservation policies (including biodiversity strategies), legislation, governance and key actors; species measures; protected areas and networks; general conservation measures (e.g. forest management, and agri-environment schemes); nature conservation costs, economic benefits and funding sources; and biodiversity monitoring. Likely future developments are also identified. Conclusions are drawn on what measures have been most effective and why, and what is needed to improve the implementation of existing measures and achieve future nature conservation goals.