This chapter examines animal–human relationships in zoos and the behaviour of visitors. Keeper–animal relationships are important to the welfare of both, and keepers are important sources of information for researchers. Some animals pose a health and safety risk to keepers, veterinarians and visitors as a result of accidents or disease transmission. The behaviour of visitors in zoos has become an important area of academic and practical interest. Researchers measure dwell time as an indicator of the extent to which an exhibit holds the attention of a visitor. It is important to understand how visitors know their position in a zoo (orientation), how they find their way (wayfinding) and how they move around in a zoo (circulation) because these factors can affect their satisfaction with their visit and influence animal welfare.

This chapter is concerned with the ethics of keeping animals in zoos. It examines the ethical problems of keeping animals in captivity with particular reference to the ethics of keeping elephants in zoos. Public attitudes towards various aspects of zoos are examined, including attitudes towards dissection, live feeding, euthanasia and the culling of healthy animals. Animal sentience is also discussed, particularly in relation to the inclusion of some invertebrates in this concept.

This chapter considers what a zoo is and the role of zoos in our culture. It discusses the definition of a ‘zoo’ and the missions statements that zoos produce to explain their purpose to the public. Most zoo visitors are families, they prefer to see large animals, especially mammals, and the primary purpose of their visits is entertainment. Zoos are culturally important. They remind us of our childhood, we give our children toy animals and model zoos, and many zoos keep long-lived animals, such as gorillas and elephants, that become important personalities that we get to know over a long period of our lives. The pattern of visitation is affected by the type of zoo, time of year, weather and other factors, including differential pricing. The COVID-19 pandemic had a significant negative effect on the financial positions of zoos.

The chapter describes the main nature conservation challenges in Slovakia, its main policy responses and actions, and their achievements and lessons, primarily over the last 40 years. This covers the country’s natural characteristics, habitats and species of particular importance; the status of nature and main pressures affecting it; nature conservation policies (including biodiversity strategies), legislation, governance and key actors; species measures; protected areas and networks; general conservation measures (e.g. the management of forests and agricultural habitats, and use of Rural Development measures); nature conservation costs, economic benefits and funding sources; and biodiversity monitoring. Likely future developments are also identified. Conclusions are drawn on what measures have been most effective and why, and what is needed to improve the implementation of existing measures and achieve future nature conservation goals.

The chapter describes the main nature conservation challenges in Ireland, its main policy responses and actions, and their achievements and lessons, primarily over the last 40 years. This covers the country’s natural characteristics, habitats and species of particular importance; the status of nature and main pressures affecting it; nature conservation policies (including biodiversity strategies), legislation, governance and key actors; species measures; protected areas and networks; general conservation measures (e.g. development planning, species-rich grasslands and agri-environment schemes, and peatland management and restoration); nature conservation costs, economic benefits and funding sources; and biodiversity monitoring. Likely future developments are also identified. Conclusions are drawn on what measures have been most effective and why, and what is needed to improve the implementation of existing measures and achieve future nature conservation goals.

The chapter briefly describes the evolution of EU environmental policy, before primarily focusing on the Birds Directive and Habitats Directive (i.e. the Nature Directives), in particular their objectives and key measures for habitats and species. These comprise two key pillars of measures: 1) general species protection; 2) the creation of the Natura 2000 network of protected areas as well as their protection from developments (through appropriate assessments) and the establishment of their necessary conservation measures. The main sources of funding for the Nature Directive and broader nature conservation are identified. Other supporting EU environmental policies and legislation are outlined, including in relation to environmental impact assessments, strategic environmental assessments, the Environmental Liability Directive, the Water Framework Directive, the Marine Strategy Framework Directive and other maritime policy instruments, air pollution, the Invasive Alien Species Regulation, and the Common Agricultural Policy. A summary is provided of the EU Biodiversity Strategies of 1998, and for 2010, 2020 (with a list of the targets and related actions) and 2030.

The chapter describes the main nature conservation challenges in Germany, its main policy responses and actions, and their achievements and lessons, primarily over the last 40 years. This covers the country’s natural characteristics, habitats and species of particular importance; the status of nature and main pressures affecting it; nature conservation policies (including biodiversity strategies), legislation, governance and key actors; species measures; protected areas and networks; general conservation measures (e.g. landscape planning, biodiversity offsets, management of High Nature Value farmland, and forest management); nature conservation costs, economic benefits and funding sources; and biodiversity monitoring. Likely future developments are also identified. Conclusions are drawn on what measures have been most effective and why, and what is needed to improve the implementation of existing measures and achieve future nature conservation goals.

The chapter describes the main nature conservation challenges in the Czech Republic, its main policy responses and actions, and their achievements and lessons, primarily over the last 40 years. This covers the country’s natural characteristics, habitats and species of particular importance; the status of nature and main pressures affecting it; nature conservation policies (including biodiversity strategies), legislation, governance and key actors; species measures; protected areas and networks; general conservation measures (e.g. habitat restoration, non-intervention and rewilding); nature conservation costs, economic benefits and funding sources; and biodiversity monitoring. Likely future developments are also identified. Conclusions are drawn on what measures have been most effective and why, and what is needed to improve the implementation of existing measures and achieve future nature conservation goals.

The chapter describes the main nature conservation challenges in Portugal, its main policy responses and actions, and their achievements and lessons, primarily over the last 40 years. This covers the country’s natural characteristics, habitats and species of particular importance; the status of nature and main pressures affecting it; nature conservation policies (including biodiversity strategies), legislation, governance and key actors; species measures (e.g. Species Action / Recovery Plans, and dealing with conflicts with the Wolf Canis lupus); protected areas and networks; general conservation measures (e.g. development planning and impacts assessment, habitat management and alien invasive species); nature conservation costs, economic benefits and funding sources; and biodiversity monitoring. Likely future developments are also identified. Conclusions are drawn on what measures have been most effective and why, and what is needed to improve the implementation of existing measures and achieve future nature conservation goals.

The chapter describes the main nature conservation challenges in Poland, its main policy responses and actions, and their achievements and lessons, primarily over the last 40 years. This covers the country’s natural characteristics, habitats and species of particular importance; the status of nature and main pressures affecting it; nature conservation policies (including biodiversity strategies), legislation, governance and key actors; species measures (e.g. regulation of hunting and fishing, and species action plans); protected areas and networks; general conservation measures (e.g. concerning development planning, agri-environment schemes, forestry, water management and pollution); nature conservation costs, economic benefits and funding sources; and biodiversity monitoring. Likely future developments are also identified. Conclusions are drawn on what measures have been most effective and why, and what is needed to improve the implementation of existing measures and achieve future nature conservation goals.

The chapter provides an overview of the aims and scope of the book (including the European countries covered), its structure and standard topics covered in each country. Includes the general objectives of the Birds and Habitats Directives, and the standard categories used to report on the status of habitats and species. Protected areas and their categories are defined. Key data sources are identified, including for the status of habitats and species; protected area coverage; and nature conservation costs and funding. The taxonomy and sources of species names are listed.

The chapter describes the main nature conservation challenges in Greece, its main policy responses and actions, and their achievements and lessons, primarily over the last 40 years. This covers the country’s natural characteristics, habitats and species of particular importance; the status of nature and main pressures affecting it; nature conservation policies (including biodiversity strategies), legislation, governance and key actors; species measures (e.g. regulating hunting, and tackling the use of illegal poisoned baits); protected areas and networks; general conservation measures (e.g. in relation to development planning, forests, water management, and alien invasive species); nature conservation costs and funding sources; and biodiversity monitoring. Likely future developments are also identified. Conclusions are drawn on what measures have been most effective and why, and what is needed to improve the implementation of existing measures and achieve future nature conservation goals.

The chapter describes the main nature conservation challenges in Cyprus, its main policy responses and actions, and their achievements and lessons, primarily over the last 40 years. This covers the country’s natural characteristics, habitats and species of particular importance; the status of nature and main pressures affecting it; nature conservation policies (including biodiversity strategies), legislation, governance and key actors; species measures (e.g. relating to the killing of songbirds, and the conservation of sea turtles); protected areas and networks; general conservation measures (e.g. development planning and impact assessment, and invasive alien species); nature conservation costs and funding sources; and biodiversity monitoring. Likely future developments are also identified. Conclusions are drawn on what measures have been most effective and why, and what is needed to improve the implementation of existing measures and achieve future nature conservation goals.