Chapter 2 offers an extensive literature review of reported speech and evidentiality, and introduces the relevant terms and concepts of the study. It describes reported speech as the object of study and positions the study in the field of evidentiality. In keeping with the diachronic, usage-based nature of the monograph, the chapter makes a case for viewing reported speech as a construction and briefly discusses its potential for entering processes of grammaticalisation. Revisiting the debate whether quotations represent constructed or reconstructed utterances, the chapter examines the notions of 'literalised' direct speech (Rumsey 1992) and 'constructed dialogue' (Tannen 2007) as relevant descriptive labels for reported speech in political speech. Due to the analytic interest of the study, a focus is placed on accounts made for English.

Chapter 8 is concerned with the question of how a sharp increase in the use of reported speech, and the heightened prominence of the interaction between the LO and the PM in the 2003–2013 sample are related to the constitution of recurrent, patterned courses of action. The small sample of reported speech from 1978–1988 did not yield such courses of action where reported speech with SAY is relevant. This contrasts with the 2003–2013 sample, where two recurrent adversarial courses of action with a patterned use of reported speech were identified: enticing sequences and trading-quotes sequences. Here enticing sequences seem to be a more recent development. By contrast, there is early evidence for a precursor of trading-quotes sequences in the 1978–1988 sample

Chapter 4 describes the composition of the self-compiled data base for the study, which consists of two comparable data sets of authentic recordings of Prime Minister’s Questions (PMQs) from 1978–1988 (audio) and 2003–2013 (video) as well of the respective Hansard files. It outlines how the language-external processes which have changed the interaction at PMQs between 1978–2013 provide the backdrop against which the evolution of reported speech is analysed. Specifically, it is argued that the composition of participation in the activity at PMQs has changed in correlation with the more prominent role of the Leader of the Opposition, and fostered a sharp increase of reported speech. It is demonstrated how the calculation of frequencies is conducted in relation to turn types and speaker roles. The chapter finally presents the transcription conventions and procedure, and discusses the basic methodological assumptions of the study.

Chapter 1 provides an introduction to this study, which analyses the recent change of quoting as an evidential practice based on data taken from authentic recordings of Prime Minister’s Questions during 1978–1988 and 2003–2013. The chapter presents the previous research background, and an outline of the subsequent chapters. Chapters 2–3 prepare the ground for the analysis, presenting a literature review of past relevant research. Chapters 4–8 comprise the analytic study. Chapter 9 summarises and concludes the findings.

Chapter 9 reports findings from a study that investigated cross-cultural variation and gender variation in the responses given by participants to marketing videos. It aims to answer the following research questions: To what extent does the figurative make-up of marketing videos evoke different emotions in British and Chinese participants, and how does this affect the extent to which they like and share videos? And to what extent does the figurative make-up of marketing videos evoke different emotions between men and women, and how does this affect the extent to which they like and share videos? With respect to cultural/linguistic background, Chinese respondents are found to be more likely to be surprised by the videos than British respondents, but British respondents are more likely to report negative emotions along with fear and stress. These relationships are sometimes strengthened and sometimes mitigated by the presence of resemblance metaphor, correlational metaphor, dramatic irony, hyperbole, and understatement. Chinese participants are more likely than British participants to indicate that they would share positive and surprising advertisements. In contrast, British participants are more likely than Chinese participants to indicate that they would share negative and frightening/stressful advertisements. With respect to gender, female respondents reported stronger emotional reactions than male respondents, as well as higher levels of appreciation than male respondents. The levels of appreciation and sharing intent expressed by both genders are influenced in a similar way by the emotions that the videos provoked, but male participants are more likely than female respondents to appreciate frightening and/or stressful advertisements.

Chapter 8 provides a report on versions of general extenders, that is, their translation equivalents, in languages other than English. There are studies of two Creoles, in Trinidad and Hawai‘i, with an analysis of the phonological processes involved in their development. Comparable expressions are documented in a variety of languages, including Brazilian Portuguese, French, German, Lithuanian, Persian, Russian, Spanish and Swedish. Notable differences between the expressions in Montreal French versus Parisian French are investigated. The relatively low frequency of disjunctive forms recorded in other languages is compared to English. Some observations are presented on where differences typically occur and the fact that several languages make use of interesting (non-referential) melodic expressions of a type not found in English, revealing some kind of aesthetic difference.

Chapter 7 describes the ways in which general extenders, as linguistic variables, align with social variables and become social markers in different communities. Among the variables investigated are age, gender, social class and regional variety. Most examples are from English, especially British English, together with the results from a sociolinguistic study of Montreal French. The different uses of general extenders in the academic and business registers are also described. The highest frequency forms in international varieties of English are reported, with lists of the most common expressions recorded in the USA, UK, Canada, Australia and New Zealand.Differences between typical forms associated with southern versus northern England are noted, as well as aspects of Irish and Scottish English. The different methods of data collection employed in the past are reviewed, noting their potential effects on the nature of the data elicited, and advocating for an attempt at consensus on appropriate methodology going forward.