Chapter 2 presents a review of earlier studies that were mostly based on the assumption that general extenders are used with a referential function, are content-oriented, signal categorization and can be analyzed as set-marking tags or vague category identifiers. In the clearest cases, which are typically longer forms, they can be analyzed in terms of semantic features, shared with an antecedent, that identify the category involved. In other cases, there may be reference to an ad hoc category, also described as a non-lexicalized category, rather than one that is already lexicalized. The use of adjunctive forms as list completers is also normally interpreted in terms of set-marking.Adjunctive forms are also shown to be indicators of intertextuality. Long forms described as SKT tags incorporate reference to a "kind," indicating that classification or categorization is being signaled. A final section is dedicated to specific extenders, typically used with clear referential function.

Chapter 11 shows how figurative messaging can be used in the most optimal way in advertising campaigns and branding exercises. It provides recommendations designed to help practitioners to make informed choices about the use of figurative messaging in their campaigns and to anticipate possible outcomes and pitfalls. It covers issues such as the way in which metaphor works as a ‘disruptor’, how people experience and interact with metaphor, the different ways in which figurative messaging can be used creatively, how this relates to fast and slow thinking, and the ways in which figurative messaging can be made to appeal to different audiences.

Chapter 10 begins with two illustrations of the multifunctionality of general extenders in extracts from American English and Parisian French. Some relevant examples are presented and discussed to show that the structural position of general extenders is not necessarily utterance-final. In English, they can even be part of the subject noun phrase and, in other languages, they are often positioned inside utterances. In a function hitherto undocumented in English, some adjunctive forms are analyzed as associative plurals, used to reference a group of people associated with a particular individual as a focal referent. In a suggested area for further research, a substantial number of extender-type phrases with -else, previously unanalyzed, are illustrated and discussed. Another area where further research is encouraged is the investigation of the role of adjunctive forms in list completion with a much broader perspective than in earlier research.

Chapter 9 is devoted to aspects of general extender use by second language (L2) learners, with discussion of research and examples from first language (L1) speakers of Dutch, French, German, Persian and Swedish, plus data from English L1 speakers learning other languages. The phenomenon of low-frequency use of discourse/pragmatic features among L2 learners is noted. The more limited repertoire of L2 learners results in the complete absence of some forms and a reliance on, and hence overuse of, only a few expressions. Another aspect of L2 learner usage is the creation of novel expressions, some of which can be analyzed as interlanguage forms. Novel forms, and new uses of old forms, are also exemplified in the use of English as a lingua franca. Proposals for the inclusion of general extenders in L2 teaching are based on the explicit presentation and analysis of examples, with a contrastive approach discussed and exemplified. The chapter concludes with four exercises designed to raise awareness of how different English general extenders are typically used.

Chapter 7 describes a study investigating cross-cultural differences in the ways in which the visual layout and colours are used figuratively in the design of app icons for food-related products and services in two very different cultures: the US and Japan. The study shows how the different colour-meaning associations that operate in these countries shape the designers’ choice of colour for the background of apps for different products (food and beverages) and services (including cooking, food delivery, exploration of new recipes, and calorie-counting). The presence of both metaphor and metonymy in the app icons is found to be comparable across the two cultures, with high levels of metonymy across the board. However, when metaphor or metonymy are used in the Japanese app icons, they are more likely to appear in clusters, whereas in the US app icons, they are more likely to appear in isolation. Both cultures use mainly schematic app icons, but the Japanese app icons are more likely to be content-rich than the US ones. In terms of the visual layout, verbo-pictorial images are most popular across the board; in addition to this, Japanese apps tend to be more visual than the US apps. Apps that appear towards the top of the downloads ranking in both the US and in Japan were more likely to contain metonymy but not necessarily metaphor. These apps are more likely to be schematic and are more likely to contain combinations of words and images. Taken together, the findings suggest that app designs are closely related to the product and service being provided by the app. They also suggest that schematic, metonymic apps that contain combinations of words and images are most likely to be successful in both cultures, but that different designs are preferred by the different cultures, with Japanese app culture being more visual than US app culture.

Chapter 8 explores the role played by figurative language in marketing videos and examines the emotional impact of different kinds of figurative language. It investigates whether there are any combinations of figurative messaging and emotional arousal that predict the success of a marketing video, in terms of how much a video is appreciated and the extent to which viewers would be willing to share the video with others. The aim is to establish whether there is an optimal combination of figurative language type and emotional resonance that makes a video more likely to become popular. The main findings are that hyperbole and dramatic irony enhance the feelings of surprise, positive emotions, and stress and fear in viewers. None of the figurative operations investigated trigger negative emotions. Videos need to be impactful to be liked; the important thing is to have an emotional impact, regardless of whether it is positive or negative.

Chapter 5 reports on the uses of general extenders in terms of their textual function in the verbal record of interaction and their role in turn construction. An analysis is presented of some examples as performance fillers, placeholders or filled pauses used in the articulation of utterances, as well as their potential role for some speakers as oral punctuation marks, or punctors, all features that some would view negatively. Their role in the internal structure of utterances is described in terms of brackets and clusters, specifically as right brackets, and as elements in clusters with other pragmatic markers. Different forms are shown to have a role in information structure, including foregrounding, as well as in turn management. Distinct structural patterns can be observed in some cases when forms are used to indicate turn-completion and to mark topic shift, all described and exemplified.

Chapter 4 focuses on the uses of general extenders that are speaker-oriented, representing the speaker’s point of view, or the personal function, also known as subjectivity. They are also described as stance markers when used to express personal feelings, attitudes and evaluations. Clear examples of this function can be found in those adjunctive phrases with pejorative terms as proforms. Other notable examples involve extended descriptions that seem excessive, yet iconically represent an excess of work or problems. Speakers can also use some adjunctive forms to indicate that they think the accompanying information isextreme in some way or, within a formulaic construction, to express an idea that is unexpected. The disjunctive form or anything can be used to express the minimum expected and is the typical phrase used in a formulaic disclaimer. The different origins and functions of Whatever and or whatever are described and, along with some adjunctive forms used with a dismissive effect, are analyzed in terms of metapragmatic awareness.

Chapter 1 looks at the range of figurative language types that can be found in advertising, discusses how and why they are used creatively and reports findings from studies that have explored the relative advantages of different combinations of metaphor and metonymy. It introduces key concepts such as metaphor, hyperbole, understatement, metonymy, and illustrates how they work alone and in combination in effective advertising. The chapter then explores ways of exploiting the creative potential of figurative messaging. These include the use of personification, shock tactics, anaphoric reference, innuendo, and narrative structure. Finally, it shows how figurative language can be used effectively in advertisements to convey humour and irony.

In Chapter 6, there is a review of the historical record, with the help of the Oxford English Dictionary Online, other older corpora and studies by historical linguists, in an attempt to identify earlier forms of general extenders and to trace the development of those in current use. One clear pathway of change is identified in terms of phrases with specific reference becoming more general in their range of reference and even losing referential function over time. Detailed paths of development are provided for all the most common forms. The different processes involved in grammaticalization are also described and illustrated, with attention given to lexical replacement, semantic bleaching, morphosyntactic and phonological change and pragmatic shift.

Chapter 5 reports findings from a study which explores the impact of viewing time on people’s responses to metaphor and metonymy when used alone and in combination, and when presented with varying degrees of visual complexity. The study addresses the following question: Do people appreciate a simple but enigmatic metaphoric image, or do they prefer a detailed image containing plenty of cues as to the intended figurative meaning of the advertisement? In other words: Do people prefer schematic or content rich figurative advertisements? The findings from the study show that viewers are most likely to find advertisements that contain metaphor and that are content-rich to be more engaging. Metaphor is even more likely to be appreciated when it is presented in a content-rich design. Persuasiveness ratings for both metaphor and metonymy increase when people are given longer to view the advertisement. The meanings that people identify in advertisements are strongly shaped by their personal interests and their levels of familiarity with the product, which are in turn sometimes mediated by nationality and gender. Need for cognition affects people’s ability to find meaning in advertisements containing metaphor and metonymy.