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The causes of the disappearance of Late Chalcolithic society (Ghassulian) in the early fourth millennium bc remain obscure. This study identifies the collapse as the consequence of a change in the approach to metallurgy from cosmological fundament (Late Chalcolithic) to a practical craft (EB1). This endogenous transition accounts for the cultural recession characterizing the transitional period (EB1A) and the discontinuity in ritual practices. The new practical approach in metallurgy is firstly observed in the southern margin of the Ghassulian culture, which produced copper for distribution in the Nile valley rather than the southern Levant. Nevertheless, the Ghassulian cultural markers visible in the newly emerging areas of copper working (southern coastal plain, Nile valley) denote the survival of the old cosmological traditions among metalworkers of the EB1 culture. Their religious expression unveils the extension of the Ghassulian beliefs attached to metallurgy and their metamorphosis into the esoteric fundaments of the Bronze Age religions.
Chapter 6 examines the Middle-to-Upper Palaeolithic transition which marks the third stage of the demographic prehistory of Palaeolithic Europe: expansion. This stage coincides with two important events – the extinction of the Neanderthals and the arrival into Europe by early Homo sapiens. These events are examined through the lens of the expansion of social lives and the increased interconnectivity of regional groups by early European Homo sapiens.
Chapter 8 summarises the new four stage demographic prehistory of Palaeolithic Europe developed in this book, identifies the ongoing challenges in reconstructing Palaeolithic population histories and places the evidence from Europe in its global context.
Chapter 4 discusses the Lower Palaeolithic populations who lived during the first stage of the demographic prehistory of Palaeolithic Europe: visitation. Substantial differences in the demographic records of the Early and Middle Pleistocene are seen in this visitation stage, but Europe was a continental population sink throughout.
Demographic data from recent hunter-gatherers are frequently used to supplement the database available for prehistoric hunter-gatherers. Through the lens of Human Behaviour Ecology, Chapter 3 analyses demographic data from recent foragers, identifies common population controls and constraints and uses these to develop some expectations for Palaeolithic hunter-gatherers.
During the fourth and final stage of the demographic prehistory of Palaeolithic Europe, people intensified both their presence on the European landscape and their social and material lives. Chapter 7 discusses the developments that occurred within this intensification stage, as well as the demographic effects of the Last Glacial Maximum.
Chapter 1 introduces the key issues in Palaeolithic palaeodemography, the four-stage model of the demographic prehistory of Palaeolithic Europe developed in this book, and the social approach adopted which focuses on the role of women and children as drivers of population change, and the distinction between small and small-scale societies.
The Neanderthals of the Middle Palaeolithic occupied Europe during the second demographic stage: residency. The Neanderthal metapopulation persisted for hundreds of thousands of years, but variation in the intensity of their presence suggest a complex pattern of population growth and decline, including regular extinctions linked to the ‘small-scale’ nature and comparative isolation of many Neanderthal groups.