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3349087 results

Page 115 of 167455

Initial Algebras and Terminal Coalgebras
  • The Theory of Fixed Points of Functors
  • Jiří Adámek, Stefan Milius, Lawrence S. Moss
  • Published online:
    30 January 2025
    Print publication:
    06 February 2025
  • Providing an in-depth treatment of an exciting research area, this text's central topics are initial algebras and terminal coalgebras, primary objects of study in all areas of theoretical computer science connected to semantics. It contains a thorough presentation of iterative constructions, giving both classical and new results on terminal coalgebras obtained by limits of canonical chains, and initial algebras obtained by colimits. These constructions are also developed in enriched settings, especially those enriched over complete partial orders and complete metric spaces, connecting the book to topics like domain theory. Also included are an extensive treatment of set functors, and the first book-length presentation of the rational fixed point of a functor, and of lifting results which connect fixed points of set functors with fixed points of endofunctors on other categories. Representing more than fifteen years of work, this will be the leading text on the subject for years to come.
Opinion Pooling

Opinion Pooling
  • Lee Elkin, Richard Pettigrew
  • Published online:
    30 January 2025
    Print publication:
    30 January 2025
    • Element
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  • Disagreement is a common feature of a social world. For various reasons, however, we sometimes need to resolve a disagreement into a single set of opinions. This can be achieved by pooling the opinions of individuals that make up the group. In this Element, we provide an opinionated survey on some ways of pooling opinions: linear pooling, multiplicative pooling (including geometric), and pooling through imprecise probabilities. While we give significant attention to the axiomatic approach in evaluating pooling strategies, we also evaluate them in terms of the epistemic and practical goals they might meet. In doing so, we connect opinion pooling to some philosophical problems in social epistemology and the philosophy of action, illuminating different perspectives one might take when figuring out how to pool opinions for a given purpose. This title is also available as Open Access on Cambridge Core.
Mathematical Notations

Mathematical Notations
  • Dirk Schlimm
  • Published online:
    30 January 2025
    Print publication:
    30 January 2025
    • Element
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  • This Element lays the foundation, introduces a framework, and sketches the program for a systematic study of mathematical notations. It is written for everyone who is curious about the world of symbols that surrounds us, in particular researchers and students in philosophy, history, cognitive science, and mathematics education. The main characteristics of mathematical notations are introduced and discussed in relation to the intended subject matter, the language in which the notations are verbalized, the cognitive resources needed for learning and understanding them, the tasks that they are used for, their material basis, and the historical context in which they are situated. Specific criteria for the design and assessment of notations are discussed, as well as ontological, epistemological, and methodological questions that arise from the study of mathematical notations and of their use in mathematical practice.
Constructing Experience

Constructing Experience
  • Expectation and Attention in Perception
  • Jason Clarke
  • Published online:
    30 January 2025
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    30 January 2025
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  • This Element examines the influence of expectation and attention on conscious perception. It explores the debate on whether attention is necessary for conscious perception by presenting empirical evidence from studies on inattentional blindness, change blindness, and the attentional blink. While the evidence strongly suggests that attention is necessary for conscious perception, other research has shown that expectation can shape perception, sometimes leading to illusory experiences where predicted stimuli are perceived despite their absence. This phenomenon, termed 'expectation awareness', suggests that attention may not be necessary for all conscious experiences. These findings are explored within the predictive processing framework, where the brain is characterized as a prediction engine, continuously updating its internal models to minimize prediction errors. Integrating findings from psychology, neuroscience, and cognitive science, this Element provides a predictive processing model of how attention and expectation construct perceptual reality. It also discusses clinical and theoretical implications and suggests future research.
Bayesian Models of the Mind

Bayesian Models of the Mind
  • Michael Rescorla
  • Published online:
    30 January 2025
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    30 January 2025
    • Element
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  • Bayesian decision theory is a mathematical framework that models reasoning and decision-making under uncertain conditions. The Bayesian paradigm originated as a theory of how people should operate, not a theory of how they actually operate. Nevertheless, cognitive scientists increasingly use it to describe the actual workings of the human mind. Over the past few decades, cognitive science has produced impressive Bayesian models of mental activity. The models postulate that certain mental processes conform, or approximately conform, to Bayesian norms. Bayesian models offered within cognitive science have illuminated numerous mental phenomena, such as perception, motor control, and navigation. This Element provides a self-contained introduction to the foundations of Bayesian cognitive science. It then explores what we can learn about the mind from Bayesian models offered by cognitive scientists.
On Believing and Being Convinced

On Believing and Being Convinced
  • Paul Silva Jr.
  • Published online:
    30 January 2025
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    30 January 2025
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  • Our doxastic states are our belief-like states, and these include outright doxastic states and degreed doxastic states. The former include believing that p, having the opinion that p, thinking that p, being sure that p, being certain that p, and doubting that p. The latter include degrees of confidence, credences, and perhaps some phenomenal states. But we also have conviction (being convinced simpliciter that p) and degrees of conviction (being more or less convinced that p). This Element shows: how and why all of the outright doxastic states mentioned above can be reduced to conviction thresholds; what degrees of conviction fundamentally are (degreed reliance-dispositions); why degrees of conviction are not credences; when suspending a belief is compatible with continuing to believe; and the surprising extent to which Kant endorsed the theory of conviction that emerges in this Element.
Lowcountry Conjure Magic

Lowcountry Conjure Magic
  • Historical Archaeology on a Plantation Slave Quarter
  • Sharon K. Moses
  • Published online:
    30 January 2025
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    30 January 2025
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  • Cat Island, South Carolina, was once the location of slave trade activities, including capture of Native Americans for export and the rise of plantations in the Lowcountry for indigo and rice production, from the sixteenth to mid-nineteenth centuries. This Element examines the Hume Plantation Slave Street Project led by the author, and archaeological evidence for hoodoo magic and ritual practices involving “white magic” spells used for protection and treatments for illness and injury, and, alternately, for 'black magic,' in spells used to exact harm or to kill. This Element is intended as a contribution to the collective knowledge about hoodoo magic practices in the Lowcountry, centered on the Hume Plantation grounds during this period of American history. It is an attempt to examine how attitudes and practices may have changed over time and concludes with a look at select contemporary hoodoo activities conducted in local cemeteries.
Sustaining Development in Small Islands

Sustaining Development in Small Islands
  • Climate Change, Geopolitical Security, and the Permissive Liberal Order
  • Matthew Louis Bishop, Rachid Bouhia, Salā George Carter, Jack Corbett, Courtney Lindsay, Michelle Scobie, Emily Wilkinson
  • Published online:
    30 January 2025
    Print publication:
    30 January 2025
    • Element
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  • The viability of small island developing states (SIDS) is threatened by three distinct processes – a backlash against globalisation; rising geopolitical competition between powers; and accelerating climate change – which are pulling at the threads binding the liberal international order together. We suggest that this order has been kinder to SIDS than is often acknowledged because its underpinning norms – sovereign equality, non-interference, and right to development – are inherently permissive and thus provide SIDS with choices rather than imperatives. Their leaders should fight for the continuation and enhancement of that order rather than be seduced by alternatives. We provide a rationale for and examples of policies to achieve this, including reforms to the way ODA is measured, debt restructured, climate finance allocated, and global governance organised. These enhancements represent the most plausible pathway for SIDS in a period of significant global upheaval. This title is also available as Open Access on Cambridge Core.
Africa in Urban History

Africa in Urban History
  • Ambe J. Njoh
  • Published online:
    30 January 2025
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    30 January 2025
    • Element
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  • This Element in Global Urban History seeks to promote understanding of the urban history of Africa. It does so by undertaking four main tasks. Firstly, it employs race, ethnicity, class, and conflict theory as conceptual frameworks to analyze the spatial structures, social, and political-economic dynamics of African cities from global, comparative, and transnational perspectives. Secondly, it proposes a new typology of the continent's cities. Thirdly, it identifies and draws into focus an important but oft-ignored part of Africa's urban history, namely Indigenous cities. It focuses more intensely on the few that still exist to date. Fourthly, it employs conflict, functional, and symbolic interactionist theories as well as elements of the race ideology to explain the articulation of racism, ethnicity, and classism in the continent's urban space. This is done mainly but not exclusively from historical perspectives.
TransGenre

TransGenre
  • Aaron Hammes
  • Published online:
    30 January 2025
    Print publication:
    06 February 2025
    • Element
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  • TransGenre is a reconsideration of genre theory in long-form fiction through transgender minor literature in the US and Canada. Using four genre sites (the road novel, the mourning novel, the chosen family novel, and the archival novel), this Element considers how the minoritized becomes the minoritarian through deterritorializing generic conventions in fiction to its own ends. In so doing, TransGenre proposes narrative reading practices as strategies of the minor to subvert, transgress, and reappropriate the novel's genealogy and radical future prospects. A range of fiction published in the last decade is deployed as largely self-theorizing, generating its own epistemological, thematic, and formal innovations and possibilities, revealing cisheteronormative underpinnings of generic categories and turning them in on themselves.

  • Skeptical Disagreement is a Kind of Deep Disagreement

  • Rogelio Miranda Vilchis
  • Journal:
    Episteme , First View
    Published online by Cambridge University Press:
    30 January 2025, pp. 1-15
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  • The aim of this paper is to expose the intimate relationship between deep disagreements and skepticism. Philosophers have explored how deep disagreements lead to skepticism about their resolution at the metalevel (about whether one knows that P), but they have paid little attention to how they also lead to first- or object-level skepticism (about whether P is the case) and how skepticism also produces deep disagreements. I show how engaging in a discussion about any topic against a radical skeptic position always leads to deep disagreement. Furthermore, the disagreement engendered by radical skepticism is a kind of deep disagreement at the level of epistemic evaluation of propositions that covaries with deep disagreements at the object level. Deep disagreement and radical skepticism are intimately linked.

  • Fratricidal Coercion in Modern War

  • Jason Lyall, Yuri Zhukov
  • Journal:
    International Organization , First View
    Published online by Cambridge University Press:
    30 January 2025, pp. 1-20
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  • Armies sometimes use fratricidal coercion—violence and intimidation against their own troops—to force reluctant soldiers to fight. How this practice affects battlefield performance remains an open question. We study fratricidal coercion using a mixed-methods strategy, drawing on (1) monthly panel data on Soviet Rifle Divisions in World War II, built from millions of declassified personnel files; (2) paired comparisons of Rifle Divisions at the Battle of Leningrad; and (3) cross-national data on 526 land battles and war outcomes from 75 conflicts (1939–2011) to assess generalizability. We offer three sets of empirical findings. First, coercion keeps some soldiers from fleeing the battlefield, but at the cost of higher casualties and reduced initiative. Second, wartime and prewar coercion (such as mass repression and officer purges) affect soldiers’ behavior in similar, mutually reinforcing ways. Third, the resolve-boosting, initiative-dampening effects of fratricidal coercion generalize across belligerents and wars. Fratricidal coercion generates compliance through fear, compelling soldiers with variable levels of resolve to conform to a uniform standard of battlefield behavior. But the net utility of this approach is dubious. On balance, countries employing fratricidal coercion are less likely to win wars.

  • 5 - Dejewification

  • from Part II - Autarky and Armament, 1933–1939/41
  • Peter Hayes, Northwestern University
  • Book:
    Profits and Persecution
    Published online:
    22 November 2024
    Print publication:
    30 January 2025, pp 63-78

  • Summary

    This chapter details the increasingly indispensable part German big business played in expelling German Jews from economic life and dispossessing them, including in the annexed regions of Austria and the Czech lands. Avarice and self-defense were the principal motivators, with the latter becoming increasingly important as time passed.

  • 2 - Three-Body Systems

  • Barbara Ryden, The Ohio State University
  • Book:
    Celestial and Stellar Dynamics
    Published online:
    16 January 2025
    Print publication:
    30 January 2025, pp 17-40

  • Summary

    Echoing the Somerset proverb quoted by John Ray, we can state that if we have only one celestial body, that is too few objects to study celestial dynamics. A system with two bodies, as we saw in the previous chapter, contains interesting physics. But what about a three-body system? We might conclude, considering the possible complexity of such a system, that it contains too many objects to be tractable.

Page 115 of 167455