In hydrology it is often necessary to assign a probability to future occurrence of an event of a given magnitude, on the basis of an available record of measurements. While general probability theory provides the basis, over the years some concepts have been developed especially as tools in hydrology. A rough estimate of an event’s nonexceedance probability can be derived from its plotting position in the record; a display of the data on probability graph paper is a useful additional tool. It is often useful to fit a mathematical probability distribution function to the available data, because this provides a succinct description of the data and it allows the formulation of objective confidence criteria. Most probability functions have found application in hydrology. The normal distribution is generally appropriate for long-term averages. The log-gamma (or log-Pearson Type III) distribution is now the preferred function for annual maximal river flows. Several extreme value distributions can describe the smallest and largest extremes of different hydrologic phenomena. Methods have been developed to extend regular data records by inclusion of historical events and by regionalization.

In the analysis of most free-surface flows in hydrology it can be assumed that the pressure distribution is hydrostatic normally to the bottom; this in turn allows the adoption of a uniform velocity profile. These two simplifications form the basis of shallow-water theory. In the resulting continuity and momentum equations, also referred to as the Saint Venant equations, the effects of viscosity and turbulence are parameterized in terms of a friction slope. These equations are not easy to solve in general, but important features of free-surface flow can be brought out by solutions of their linearized, diffusion, quasi-steady-uniform flow (or kinematic wave), and lumped kinematic approximations.

Master the principles of structural dynamics with this comprehensive and self-contained textbook, with key theoretical concepts explained through real-world engineering applications.

• The theory of natural modes of vibration, the finite element method, and the dynamic response of structures is balanced with practical applications to give students a thorough contextual understanding of the subject.

• Enhanced coverage of damping, rotating systems, and parametric excitation provides students with superior understanding of these essential topics.

• Examples and homework problems, closely linked to real-world applications, enrich and deepen student understanding.

• Curated mathematical appendices equip students with all the tools necessary to excel, without disrupting coverage of core topics.

• Containing all the material needed for a one- or two-semester course, and accompanied online by MATLAB/Python code, this authoritative textbook is the ideal introduction for graduate students in aerospace, mechanical, and civil engineering.

Master the principles of structural dynamics with this comprehensive and self-contained textbook, with key theoretical concepts explained through real-world engineering applications.

• The theory of natural modes of vibration, the finite element method, and the dynamic response of structures is balanced with practical applications to give students a thorough contextual understanding of the subject.

• Enhanced coverage of damping, rotating systems, and parametric excitation provides students with superior understanding of these essential topics.

• Examples and homework problems, closely linked to real-world applications, enrich and deepen student understanding.

• Curated mathematical appendices equip students with all the tools necessary to excel, without disrupting coverage of core topics.

• Containing all the material needed for a one- or two-semester course, and accompanied online by MATLAB/Python code, this authoritative textbook is the ideal introduction for graduate students in aerospace, mechanical, and civil engineering.

The preface briefly sets out the developments in protection of fundamental rights by means of European and international instruments and explains the value, relevance and set-up of the book.

Master the principles of structural dynamics with this comprehensive and self-contained textbook, with key theoretical concepts explained through real-world engineering applications.

• The theory of natural modes of vibration, the finite element method, and the dynamic response of structures is balanced with practical applications to give students a thorough contextual understanding of the subject.

• Enhanced coverage of damping, rotating systems, and parametric excitation provides students with superior understanding of these essential topics.

• Examples and homework problems, closely linked to real-world applications, enrich and deepen student understanding.

• Curated mathematical appendices equip students with all the tools necessary to excel, without disrupting coverage of core topics.

• Containing all the material needed for a one- or two-semester course, and accompanied online by MATLAB/Python code, this authoritative textbook is the ideal introduction for graduate students in aerospace, mechanical, and civil engineering.

As the hydrologic cycle is driven by it, precipitation must be considered its main component: without precipitation, there is also not much of a hydrologic cycle. Precipitation naturally follows supersaturation of the air, usually as a result of cooling. One of the most effective ways of cooling occurs through lifting of the air mass, often involving a cyclonic motion. Most precipitation weather systems can be classified according to their type of cyclonic motion. For many hydrologic applications it is necessary to consider not only the spatial but also the temporal distribution of the precipitation, and many procedures are available for this purpose. The part of precipitation that moistens the surface elements, and is temporarily stored on them, is referred to as interception; often also called interception loss, it can amount to as much as 30 to 40% of the precipitation in dense forests. Detailed energy-budget considerations show that snow melt is mainly driven by the air temperature above freezing. Most past records of precipitation suffer from substantial systematic error. The main factor is wind. Different measurement techniques have been proposed to solve this problem.

Streamflow routing describes the motion of a flood wave in a well-defined open channel. Two extreme types of large waves can be discerned, depending on the main factors controlling the momentum budget in the shallow-water equations. An abrupt wave, a surge or moving hydraulic jump occurs when the inertia and hydrostatic pressure gradient terms are predominant and the friction and gravity terms can be neglected; such types of waves have caused disastrous floods. The monoclinal rising wave occurs in the opposite situation, when friction and slope terms predominate compared to the dynamic terms. Most flood waves are intermediate and their analysis requires, beside the continuity equation, inclusion of the complete momentum equation. Yet, in practice excellent results have been obtained with lumped kinematic methods, among which the well-known Muskingum method, which uses only the continuity equation without explicit momentum conservation considerations. A kinematic approach normally leaves the shape of the flood wave unchanged. However, numerical diffusion due to the discretization of the continuity equation in finite increments allows the description of the changing shape of the wave.

Base flow is the rate of flow that a given river basin can sustain in the absence of precipitation and artificial storage works. Such flows are important in connection with water supply and water quality in rivers during drought periods, and general basin and agricultural drainage. But even storm runoff is largely supplied into the streams by subsurface transport. Thus, subsurface drainage from the aquifers along the banks of the streams is one of the key elements in catchment hydrology, not only under drought conditions but also in response to precipitation. Herein the subsurface outflow is first considered locally at the point where it enters the stream, by analysis of the groundwater flow process in the riparian unconfined aquifer. Thus, the different available formulations are reviewed; these comprise general unconfined flow, free-surface flow, and hydraulic groundwater theory and its linear approximation, including flow in sloping aquifers. In the last section, the base flow is parameterized at the basin scale, by integration of the local outflows along all the streams in the basin. The base flow trend of a basin provides an indication of its groundwater storage changes.

This chapter discusses the right to property as it is protected by the European Convention on Human Rights, other Council of Europe instruments, in EU law and in international instruments. It pays attention to matters such as the definition of property, deprivation of property, expropriation and compensation. In the final section, a short comparison between the different instruments is made.

Streamflow is normally characterized by a hydrograph, which is the flow rate as a function of time and is the integrated result of all upstream flow processes. In the earlier chapters some of the more important transport mechanisms have been considered, and most of them are fairly well understood individually. However, there is still no unifying theory available that provides a coherent explanation for the integration of these different local mechanisms into the streamflow generation process. The main reason for this uncertainty is the large variation in drainage basins; but even for any given basin, it is difficult to identify the different mechanisms by decomposing of the runoff integral into its constituent parts, that is by its inversion to obtain the integrands. In brief, the main mechanisms are overland flow, as infiltration excess or as saturation excess, and subsurface storm flow, as regular porous media flow, with or without macropores and other preferential flow paths, shallow permeable layers, or wave-like water-table motion. The stucture of the models and their parameters used in formulating these mechanisms depend on the adopted computational scale.

This chapter discusses the right to collective action and the right to strike as protected by the European Convention on Human Rights, other Council of Europe instruments, in EU law and in international instruments. In the final section, a short comparison between the different instruments is made.

This chapter discusses the right to freedom of association and of assembly, as well as the right to demonstrate, as they are protected by the European Convention on Human Rights, other Council of Europe instruments, in EU law and in international instruments. Attention is also paid to trade union freedom and political parties. In the final section, a short comparison between the different instruments is made

This chapter discusses procedural rights as protected by the European Convention on Human Rights, other Council of Europe instruments, in EU law and in international instruments. Attention is paid to topics like the right to access to a court, the independence and impartiality of courts, effective legal remedies, the right to a fair trial and procedural guarantees in criminal proceedings. In the final section, a short comparison between the different instruments is made.

This chapter discusses the rights of vulnerable groups (such as women, children, persons with a disability and elderly persons) and group rights as protected by the European Convention on Human Rights, other Council of Europe instruments, in EU law and in international instruments. For the various rights, a short comparison between the different instruments is made.