This chapter will examine rules governing the contiguous zone, the EEZ and the continental shelf. In the contiguous zone, the coastal State may exercise the control necessary to prevent and punish infringement of its customs, fiscal, immigration or sanitary laws and regulations within its territory or territorial sea. While the LOSC contains only succinct provisions respecting the contiguous zone, the legal nature of the coastal State jurisdiction over the zone deserves serious consideration. The raison dtre of the institution of the EEZ and the continental shelf involves the conservation and management of natural resources. Owing to the increasing importance of marine natural resources, these zones are particularly important for coastal States. This chapter will discuss the following issues in particular: (1) the coastal State jurisdiction over the contiguous zone, (2) the coastal State jurisdiction over the EEZ and the continental shelf, (3) the freedoms that all States can enjoy in the EEZ, (4) the criteria for determining the outer limits of the continental shelf, and (5) the due regard obligations in the EEZ and the continental shelf.

The enzymes that are used in gene manipulation are described in Chapter 5. The discovery of restriction endonucleases, and the use of type II restriction enzymes in generating DNA fragments is outlined. The three types of fragment ends (blunt or flush-ended, 5’ protruding and 3’ protruding) enable DNA from different sources to be joined together, using the enzyme DNA ligase. DNA modifying enzymes include polymerases (DNA and RNA polymerases and reverse transcriptase), nucleases that act on the ends of molecules (exonucleases) or within a DNA strand (endonucleases), transferases, kinases and phosphatases. The enzymes make up the ‘toolkit’ that allows DNA to be manipulated in the test tube (in vitro) to generate recombinant molecules.

The international law of the sea is one of the oldest branches of public international law. Thus, it must be examined from the perspective of the development of international law in general. Originally, the law of the sea consisted of a body of rules of customary law. Later on, these rules were progressively codified. The Third United Nations (UN) Conference on the Law of the Sea, which successfully adopted the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (the LOSC) in 1982, is of critical importance in the codification of the law. Furthermore, the international community and the situations that surround the oceans are constantly changing. Accordingly, it is also necessary to examine the evolutionary process of the law after the adoption of the LOSC. As a general introduction, this chapter will address the following issues in particular: (1) the principal functions of the law of the sea, (2) the sources of the law of the sea, (3) the principles governing the law of the sea (4) procedures of the Third UN Conference on the Law of the Sea (LOSC), (5) the principal features of the LOSC, and (6) the evolutionary process of the LOSC and the law of the sea.

Bioinformatics is discussed in Chapter 11. The complex nature of the subject and its interaction with other disciplines are outlined, and the inter-dependence of bioinformatics, the development of computer hardware and the internet is stressed. The nature and range of biological databases are outlined, from the inception of nucleic acid databases in the 1970s to the present breadth of primary and secondary databases that are repositories for information on nucleic acid and protein sequences, interactions between cellular components, biochemical pathways, pharmacological targets and many other data sets derived from existing information. Genome sequence databases are used to illustrate the tools needed to assemble, collate, annotate and interrogate the data, and the impact of bioinformatics in enabling experiments and protocols to to be conducted in silico is discussed.

The international law of the sea is one of the most dynamic branches of international law. Issues in the law are diverse and the scope of those issues is ever-expanding. In this regard, what is of particular importance is to identify the direction of the future development of the law of the sea. Thus, this final chapter will consider the following issues: (1) the contemporary issues that arise under paradigms I and II, (2) three models for protecting community interests at sea, that is, the decentralised-relational model, the institutional-communitarian model, the judicial model, (3) a need for systemic outlook in the law of the sea, and (4) temporal elements in the future development of the international law of the sea.

The seaward limits of each jurisdictional zone are measured from baselines. Thus, rules concerning baselines are of particular importance in the law of the sea. In particular, rules governing straight baselines and bays merit serious consideration. Furthermore, attention must be devoted to the legal status of islands and low-tide elevations because the existence of these maritime features may affect the seaward limits of marine spaces under national jurisdiction. Against that background, this chapter will address rules concerning baselines and related issues, focusing mainly on the following questions: (1) the rules governing baselines, (2) the problems associated with rules with regard to straight baselines, (3) the rules governing juridical bays in international law, (4) historic bay, (5) the definition of an island, and (6) the differences between islands, rocks and low-tide elevations.

To introduce the subject, the history of genetics since Mendel’s work which was rediscovered in 1900 is outlined. The discovery of the structure of DNA in 1953 marked the start of the molecular genetics era. When restriction enzymes and DNA ligase were discovered, DNA fragments could be cut and joined, with the first recombinant DNA molecules generated in 1972. Rapid methods for sequencing DNA were developed in the late 1970s and eventually were improved to the level needed to enable the Human Genome Project to be undertaken. The completion of this in 2003 marked the start of the ‘post-genomic era’ that led to further development of the technology and a reduction in time and cost of genome sequencing. We are now firmly in the post-genomic era, where DNA technology is having a major impact in areas such as transgenic plants and animals, genome editing, diagnosis and treatment of disease, forensic analysis and personalised medicine.

In Chapter 13, what is needed to analyse cloned genes, and how this can be achieved are considered. The ultimate structural information is the sequence of the gene, and thus DNA sequencing has become a standard part of any cloning experiment. Although genome sequencing has led to a greater emphasis on bioinformatics-based analysis, methods such as restriction mapping, gel mobility shift assays, DNA footprinting and the various blotting techniques are still needed to confirm and link structure and function. The yeast hybrid systems have become important for analysing DNA∼protein, RNA∼protein and protein∼protein interactions, and DNA microarray technology and its extensions have changed the way in which gene expression is investigated. High-throughput analysis at genome and transcriptome levels is now routine and cost-effective. Genome projects have now generated vast amounts of sequence data, and the fields of comparative genomics and structural genomics are well established. Sequencing large numbers of genomes has now become possible and is leading to new discoveries and therapeutic interventions based on genome analysis.

Medical and forensic applications of recombinant DNA are described in Chapter 15. The range of genetically based diseases is outlined, and potential therapies discussed, covering diagnosis of infection, comparative genomics, development of vaccines, therapeutic antibodies and xenotransplantation. Treatment using gene therapy approaches is described, and the relatively limited success of gene therapy is considered in the context of its initial promise and the expectations that emerged from this. RNA-based therapies are covered by discussing RNA interference and antisense oligonucleotides, and the medical applications of genome editing are considered. The CCR5 controversy, known as the ‘CRISPR babies scandal’, is mentioned as an example of how the overall system can fail to prevent unethical practices when these are driven by determined scientists and clinicians. DNA profiling for analysis of DNA is described, and its use in forensic, legal and other applications is outlined.

Given that a healthy marine environment provides a foundation for all life, marine environmental protection is an issue of considerable importance in the law of the sea. In principle, the law regulates marine pollution according to its sources, such as land-based pollution, vessel-source pollution, dumping, pollution from seabed activities under national jurisdiction, pollution from activities in the Area and pollution through the atmosphere. Accordingly, this chapter will seek to examine the rules of international law regulating marine pollution arising from these sources. Particular focus will be on the following issues: (1) the key features that characterise marine environmental protection, (2) the significance of the LOSC in marine environmental protection, (3) rules regulating land-based marine pollution, (4) the mechanisms for regulating vessel-source marine pollution, (5) compliance with relevant rules governing marine environmental protection, and (6) the problem with the fragmentation of norms concerning marine environmental protection.

Chapter 4 describes how living systems are organised at the molecular level, beginning with the chemistry of carbon-based systems and the concept of emergent properties. The genetic code and the flow of information are introduced as a key central theme, and the structure of DNA and RNA is presented. An outline of gene structure and organisation in prokaryotes and eukaryotes is followed by the description of transcription and translation as the mechanisms by which genes are expressed. A broader look at how genomes are organised leads to an outline of the transcriptome and proteome as two important concepts that are key to understanding how the genome functions in adaptive and developmental contexts.