Parts II, III, and IV are exclusively concerned with the zonally averaged circulation. All representations of the eddies and the transports that they produce are based on zonally averaged statistics.

Total energy connotes the sum of the internal and mechanical (i.e., internal plus potential plus kinetic) energy, where the kinetic energy is ordinarily neglected, as justified in Exercise 5.4. Observational studies of the long‐term mean global energy balance dating back to the 1950s demonstrate the central role of the poleward eddy heat transports. Using space‐based measurements of radiative fluxes through the top of the atmosphere, it is now possible to partition the total poleward transport of energy between the atmosphere and the oceans and to monitor seasonal and nonseasonal variations in energy storage in the oceans.

This chapter presents key findings about people’s opinions on the EU as well as their participation in EP elections and referendums. It shows how evaluations of the EU have evolved from a permissive consensus in the early years of European cooperation to a constraining dissensus that has emerged since the 1990s. The chapter outlines the factors that determine people’s votes in EP elections as well as the different types of referenda that member states have organized with respect to EU affairs. Support for the EU can be explained by the benefits people derive from it, the beliefs they have about politics and identity and benchmarks. Citizens also take cues from political parties and politicians in making up their minds about the EU. Issues of identity have become more prominent in determining people’s stance towards politics, both at the national and at the European level. The more critical stance of EU citizens towards European integration has increased the support for Eurosceptic political parties, which want to see a smaller role for the EU.

The datasets and analysis tools for diagnosing the zonally varying general circulation that became available during the 1970s made it possible, for the first time, to clearly discern the signature of low frequency variations. This new capability sparked interest in phenomena that had been known to long‐range weather forecasters dating back to the early twentieth century statistical studies of Exner and Walker, but had not hitherto been studied in the context of advancing our understanding of the general circulation.

Warm core tropical vortices are distinctly different from any of the motion systems considered in previous chapters. In the literature they are referred to as tropical depressions, tropical storms, or tropical cyclones, in order of increasing intensity. Tropical cyclones (TCs) are also known by local names such as typhoon and hurricane.

This chapter discusses the roles of and relations between political parties, political groups and members of the European Parliament (MEPs). Domestic political parties play an important role because they are responsible for selecting the candidates for the European Parliament elections. Once elected, most of these political parties and their MEPs work together in political groups. In these political groups MEPs from like-minded parties organize their work and tend to vote as cohesive blocks. Political groups thus help to make the EP work in a much more effective manner than would be possible if the more than 200 parties that are represented there did not build coalitions. These political groups are organized along two main cleavages: a classic left–right cleavage as well as a more recent cleavage between groups that are more supportive and groups that are more critical of European integration. Finally, in addition to domestic parties, there are also European political parties. They have more limited tasks and mostly provide a platform for like-minded parties from the different member states.

A coherent introduction to generative syntax by a leader in the field, this textbook leads students through the theory from the very beginning, assuming no prior knowledge. Introducing the central concepts in a systematic and engaging way, it covers the goals of generative grammar, tacit native-speaker knowledge, categories and constituents, phrase structure, movement, binding, syntax beyond English and the architecture of grammar. The theory is built slowly, showing in a step-by-step fashion how different versions of generative theory relate to one another. Examples are carefully chosen to be easily understood, and a comprehensive glossary provides clear definitions of all the key terms introduced. With end of chapter exercises, broader discussion questions, and annotated further reading lists. Beginning Syntax is the ideal resource for instructors and beginning undergraduate students of syntax alike. Two further textbooks by Ian Roberts, Continuing Syntax and Comparing Syntax, will take students to intermediate and advanced level.

The last two chapters were devoted to the seasonal cycle in the tropical general circulation and to ENSO‐related interannual variability. In this chapter, we consider the variability on the intraseasonal timescale, defined here as fluctuations with periods ranging from 20 to 90 days (or frequencies ranging from 1 to 5 cycles per season).

The total energy per unit mass of an air parcel is the sum of its internal, potential, and kinetic energy. It can be shown (see Exercise 6.1) that integrated over a column of unit area, the sum of the potential $P$ plus internal $I$ energy is given by $P+I=\int c_{p}Tdp$.

The governing equations for the tropical and extratropical general circulations differ in two respects: one relating to the relative importance of the terms in the horizontal equation of motion and the other to the terms in the thermodynamic energy equation. The extratropics are nearly in geostrophic balance.

The first studies of the mass balance of atmospheric trace constituents were focused on water vapor. The earliest of these studies were motivated by the fact that the release of latent heat of condensation in precipitation is an important heat source in the global energy budget, the subject of Chapter 5. These early studies also provided new insights into the hydrologic cycle, particularly over land, and were helpful in explaining the observed salinity distribution in the ocean.

Part I consists of two chapters. The first describes the observational basis for general circulation, documents its salient features, and introduces the reader to the kinds of models that are being used to simulate it.

This chapter reflects upon the functioning of the EU and the way it can be evaluated by using the comparative politics approach. Recent crises have increased the EU’s involvement in many policy areas, begging questions as to where the EU now stands as a political organization. Moreover, the greater involvement of the EU in policymaking also brings to the fore important questions about the democratic quality of the EU. The chapter first highlights the hybrid nature of the EU, combining features of an international organization with those of a state. It next discusses the debate about the democratic deficit, concerning the extent to which citizens can determine the EU’s policies and keep the EU accountable. The chapter subsequently discusses the rule of law crisis and the commitment of all EU member states to safeguard fundamental rights and values common to all the EU member states and enumerated in the Treaties. Concerns about democratic backsliding in some EU member states have resulted in procedures against member states to address the risk of breaching these values. As these procedures are highly political, tackling such breaches in this way is fraught with difficulties.