This chapter discusses the implementation of EU policies after they have been adopted. It is structured around three phases in the implementation process: legal implementation, practical implementation and monitoring implementation. Each of these phases takes place both at the EU-level and within member states, leading to a system of multi-level administration. Subsequent sections zoom in on each of the three phases. In relation to legal implementation, both transposition by member states and the adoption of delegated and implementing acts by the Commission are discussed, including the system of comitology. The section on practical implementation looks at areas in which EU institutions are the main implementers and discusses the general EU requirements for implementation by member states. The section on monitoring implementation includes an extensive discussion of (the procedural set-up and practical use of) the infringement procedure and preliminary rulings. The chapter ends with a discussion of the role of EU agencies and European regulatory networks in the implementation of EU policies, stressing the variation within and commonalities between these two types of structure.

In Chapter 1, we presented a survey of the general circulation encompassing both Northern and Southern Hemispheres and winter and summer seasons. In this chapter, we focus on the Northern Hemisphere winter season DJF, which arguably exhibits the most distinctive patterns in terms of zonally varying jets, storm tracks, and climatological‐mean stationary waves.

This chapter documents and offers a dynamical interpretation of the annual mean tropical circulation. It is made up of six sections. The first documents the patterns of rain rate, vertical velocity, and low cloud coverage. The second and third document and interpret the upper and lower tropospheric circulations in terms of equatorially trapped planetary waves introduced in Chapter 10 and relate them to the observed rain rate distribution.

A coherent introduction to generative syntax by a leader in the field, this textbook leads students through the theory from the very beginning, assuming no prior knowledge. Introducing the central concepts in a systematic and engaging way, it covers the goals of generative grammar, tacit native-speaker knowledge, categories and constituents, phrase structure, movement, binding, syntax beyond English and the architecture of grammar. The theory is built slowly, showing in a step-by-step fashion how different versions of generative theory relate to one another. Examples are carefully chosen to be easily understood, and a comprehensive glossary provides clear definitions of all the key terms introduced. With end of chapter exercises, broader discussion questions, and annotated further reading lists. Beginning Syntax is the ideal resource for instructors and beginning undergraduate students of syntax alike. Two further textbooks by Ian Roberts, Continuing Syntax and Comparing Syntax, will take students to intermediate and advanced level.

In this chapter, we consider the leading mode of year‐to‐year climate variability, the El Niño–Southern Oscillation phenomenon, widely referred to as ENSO. El Niño connotes the episodic weakening of the equatorial Pacific SST cold tongue.1 Southern Oscillation refers to a “seesaw” in sea‐level pressure (SLP) between the eastern and western ends of the tropical Pacific Ocean.

A coherent introduction to generative syntax by a leader in the field, this textbook leads students through the theory from the very beginning, assuming no prior knowledge. Introducing the central concepts in a systematic and engaging way, it covers the goals of generative grammar, tacit native-speaker knowledge, categories and constituents, phrase structure, movement, binding, syntax beyond English and the architecture of grammar. The theory is built slowly, showing in a step-by-step fashion how different versions of generative theory relate to one another. Examples are carefully chosen to be easily understood, and a comprehensive glossary provides clear definitions of all the key terms introduced. With end of chapter exercises, broader discussion questions, and annotated further reading lists. Beginning Syntax is the ideal resource for instructors and beginning undergraduate students of syntax alike. Two further textbooks by Ian Roberts, Continuing Syntax and Comparing Syntax, will take students to intermediate and advanced level.

A coherent introduction to generative syntax by a leader in the field, this textbook leads students through the theory from the very beginning, assuming no prior knowledge. Introducing the central concepts in a systematic and engaging way, it covers the goals of generative grammar, tacit native-speaker knowledge, categories and constituents, phrase structure, movement, binding, syntax beyond English and the architecture of grammar. The theory is built slowly, showing in a step-by-step fashion how different versions of generative theory relate to one another. Examples are carefully chosen to be easily understood, and a comprehensive glossary provides clear definitions of all the key terms introduced. With end of chapter exercises, broader discussion questions, and annotated further reading lists. Beginning Syntax is the ideal resource for instructors and beginning undergraduate students of syntax alike. Two further textbooks by Ian Roberts, Continuing Syntax and Comparing Syntax, will take students to intermediate and advanced level.

A coherent introduction to generative syntax by a leader in the field, this textbook leads students through the theory from the very beginning, assuming no prior knowledge. Introducing the central concepts in a systematic and engaging way, it covers the goals of generative grammar, tacit native-speaker knowledge, categories and constituents, phrase structure, movement, binding, syntax beyond English and the architecture of grammar. The theory is built slowly, showing in a step-by-step fashion how different versions of generative theory relate to one another. Examples are carefully chosen to be easily understood, and a comprehensive glossary provides clear definitions of all the key terms introduced. With end of chapter exercises, broader discussion questions, and annotated further reading lists. Beginning Syntax is the ideal resource for instructors and beginning undergraduate students of syntax alike. Two further textbooks by Ian Roberts, Continuing Syntax and Comparing Syntax, will take students to intermediate and advanced level.

From a global perspective, the dynamics of wave–mean flow interaction in the stratosphere is dominated by Rossby waves, as described in the previous chapter. However, the tropical stratosphere is a notable exception, which merits a chapter of its own.

This chapter introduces some of the fundamental concepts that underlie our understanding of the general circulation of planetary atmospheres: radiative–convective equilibrium, a mechanical energy cycle, a thermodynamic heat engine, stratification – how it develops and why it matters, the dynamical response to horizontal and vertical heating gradients, the influence of rotation, the far‐reaching effects of frictional drag.

Wave–mean flow interaction has played a central role in studies of the general circulation, dating back to the foundational works of Rossby, Starr, and collaborators. In the early studies the waves were usually referred to as “eddies” (as in “turbulent eddies”) without regard for the specific kind of instability or forcing mechanism that gave rise to them. Starr was particularly intrigued with the countergradient transports of angular momentum equatorward of the tropospheric jet stream.1