Working memory refers to actively holding information in mind during a relatively short period of time, typically seconds. During working memory paradigms, information is actively kept in mind during the delay period. Working memory has been associated with activity in the lateral prefrontal cortex, the parietal cortex, and sensory processing regions. Section 8.1 details the brain regions that store the contents of working memory during the delay period. In Section 8.2, the evidence is evaluated that claims to link working memory with the hippocampus. Section 8.3 considers the brain timing commonly associated with working memory. In Section 8.4, brain activity associated with working memory that oscillates at particular frequencies is considered, which primarily includes alpha activity and gamma activity. In Section 8.5, changes in brain activity are highlighted that have been linked to training-related increases in working memory capacity.

This chapter focuses on long-term memory in animals, which relates to the research conducted with humans. Section 11.1 shows that rats, cats, and monkeys have the same medial temporal lobe organization as humans. The perirhinal cortex is associated with item memory, the parahippocampal cortex is associated with context memory, and the hippocampus is associated with binding item information and context information. In Section 11.2, long-term potentiation in the hippocampus is discussed. Section 11.3 reviews evidence for memory replay in rats, which refers to reactivation of the same brain regions in the same or the reverse temporal sequence that were activated during a previous event. In Section 11.4, time cells in the rat hippocampus are discussed. Section 11.5 considers the behavioral evidence and the brain evidence that indicates animals have episodic memory. This has proven to be a controversial topic because animals cannot tell us whether or not they “remember.”

Ships that pass in the night, and speak each other in passing, Only a signal shown and a distant voice in the darkness; So on the ocean of life we pass and speak one another, Only a look and a voice, then darkness again and a silence. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807–1882)

A Frenchman who arrives in London, will find Philosophy, like every Thing else, very much chang’d there… In France, ’tis the Pressure of the Moon that causes the Tides; but in England ’tis the Sea that gravitates toward the Moon. Letters Concerning the English Nation [1733] Letter XIV: On Descartes and Sir Isaac Newton, Voltaire (1694–1778)

Implicit memory refers to a lack of conscious experience or awareness of previously learned information. Section 7.1 considers the brain regions that have been associated with implicit memory, which include the lateral prefrontal cortex and sensory processing regions. In Section 7.2, the frequency bands of activity associated with implicit memory are discussed, which include gamma activity and alpha activity. Section 7.3 details theoretical models of neural activity that underlie implicit memory effects and discusses the ways in which these models can be distinguished from one another. In Section 7.4, evidence is considered that has claimed to link the hippocampus to implicit memory. Section 7.5 focuses on skill learning by evaluating how brain activity changes over time, from the initial stage of learning that depends on long-term memory to a later stage of learning that depends on implicit memory.

What were the chief characteristics of the new social democratic system of government that developed in Britain between 1931 and 1976?

How, given that in 1885 those unable to support themselves were considered personal failures, were they seen as victims of the failures of markets and governments to ensure their welfare by 1931?

When night comes I stand on the steps and listen; the stars cluster in the garden and I stand, out in the darkness. Edith Södergran (1892–1923) “Stjärnorna [The Stars]” [1916] (tr. David Barrett)

How did those Britons who believed that free trade and the gold standard had effortlessly made Britain a world hegemon in 1885 lose the faith by 1931 when their Empire was the largest in the world?

This chapter considers the brain regions associated with long-term memory, a type of explicit memory. Long-term memory can be broken down into episodic memory and semantic memory. Episodic memory refers to the detailed retrieval of a previous episode. Semantic memory refers to the retrieval of factual information. The first two sections of the chapter consider the brain regions associated with episodic memory and semantic memory. Section 3.3 considers long-term memory consolidation (i.e., the process of creating more permanent memory representations in the brain). In Section 3.4, the role of sleep in long-term memory consolidation is examined. Long-term memory consolidation requires the interaction between multiple brain regions in which activity oscillates at specific frequencies. Section 3.5 reviews the brain regions associated with memory encoding. In Section 3.6, the brain regions associated with event boundaries (e.g., transitions between scenes in a movie) are discussed, and it is argued that the reported effects reflect the processing of novel information.

How was the British imperial state transformed from an ancien régime in 1819 to a liberal one that depended upon a new science of government?

The revival of the heliocentric model by Copernicus in the sixteenth century led to speculation about planets orbiting other stars. In a heliocentric model, stars must show annual parallax as the Earth moves around the Sun.