In Qu’est-ce que la littérature, Sartre argues that literature is neither an exercise in pure aesthetics nor a mere reflection of pre-existing conditions but always an intentional act directed toward a specific audience. He challenges the writer to take responsibility for both the act and the audience to which it is addressed. In this way, he proposes that we produce a littérature that is both engagée and existentially authentic. His position is more nuanced than has often been recognized. He does not call for a mere “Literature of Ideas,” in Nabokov's dismissive phrase, nor does he demand the production of endless romans à thèse as is often alleged (Contat and Idt 1981: x). Rather, for Sartre, the author simultaneously creates and unveils an object (1948: 55) that in turn constitutes an invitation to the reader to participate in, and make possible, this unique moment of unveiling. “Écrire, c’est faire appel au lecteur pour qu’il fasse passer à l’existence objective le dévoilement que j’ai entrepris par le moyen du langage” [“To write is to make an appeal to the reader that he make enter into objective existence the act of unveiling that I have undertaken by the means of language”] (1948: 59). The literary moment is not that of simple communication in which a pre-existing message is passed from one speaker to another, nor that of free play in which a fundamentally nonideological, floating world is created. It is rather a moment of creation between author, reader, and text in which a fundamentally new object is called into existence through an act of profoundly situated and yet transcendent unveiling: transcendent precisely in so far as the act of unveiling does not exhaust itself in the moment (1948: 74–75).

Engagement, then, is not something willed or refused, it is a fact of the authentic creative act. In calling into being an object that is fundamentally new, the literary work has changed the world from what it was prior to the conjoined acts of creation and reception that constitute it. This is true as much for mimetic forms as for more formalist ventures, since there is no attempt to present an image of the world through language that is not also the creation of a parallel world (1948: 29), or a world of difference.

Appendix: Overview of Major Works

This chapter aims to provide readers with a comprehensive historical context surrounding the phenomenon of Chinese consumers’ nationalism, shedding light on the distinct characteristics exhibited by each wave throughout time. By delving into pivotal moments, such as the renowned narrative of “The Shop of the Lin Family,” which vividly portrays the eruption of nationalistic consumer boycotts in China back in 1932, to the more recent events like the fervent public backlash against South Korea and its impact on Lotte Mart in Beijing's Wangjing district in 2017, this chapter offers a captivating journey through the evolution of consumer nationalism in the country.

Within the pages of this chapter, readers will find answers to pressing questions regarding the transformations witnessed in Chinese consumer nationalism in recent years. By examining the changing dynamics, it seeks to unravel the multifaceted nature of this phenomenon and explore the various factors that have contributed to its evolution. Specifically, the chapter endeavors to shed light on the role played by the government and state media in each wave, deciphering their influence and exploring their motivations. This chapter also contemplates the ramifications that may arise from the emergence of a new wave of consumer nationalism. By drawing upon historical insights and analyzing current trends, it endeavors to provide a forward-looking perspective on the potential consequences of this evolving phenomenon. As society navigates through this new wave, it becomes increasingly crucial to understand the implications it may have on various aspects, including politics, economics, and social cohesion.

Ultimately, this chapter serves as an invaluable resource for readers seeking to grasp the intricate tapestry of Chinese consumers’ nationalism through-out history. By examining each wave's characteristics, unraveling the role of government and state media, and anticipating the potential outcomes of a burgeoning new wave, it invites readers to engage critically with this complex and ever-evolving aspect of Chinese society.

History of Chinese Consumers’ Nationalism

Consumer nationalism emerged as a recurring theme in the dynamic relationship between China and the Western world, gaining notable prominence during the late nineteenth century and reaching its zenith between the 1900s and the 1940s. Throughout this period, several pivotal instances of consumer nationalist movements unfolded, leaving a lasting impact on Sino-Western relations.

Introduction

From upper elementary school through middle and secondary school, deficits in comprehension and vocabulary impede students’ progress more than in lower elementary school. Students with deficits in these areas cannot keep up with the volume of information. Comprehension and vocabulary are basic building blocks for understanding the English language. Teachers have little time to improve these skills and the content to be taught. Verbal expression and memory deficits exacerbate the problems. It is difficult to speak and/or write about these abilities independently because they are intricately intertwined. One cannot speak of meaningful writing without acknowledging that vocabulary and memory for facts and incidentals are pertinent to thought processes involved with writing.

Comprehension and vocabulary go together in a combined fashion for these students. Research emphasizes the powerful, lasting effects of vocabulary knowledge on reading comprehension (Cunningham & Stanovich 1997). Reading fluency will not get a student anywhere if word meaning is unknown. Comprehension depends on an accurate understanding of word meanings and the ability to infer meaning from unknown words (Roberts et al. 2008).

Other abilities are involved with written expression such as spelling, punctuation, and grammar, that impact writing and are treated in other chapters. The Language Experience Approach (LEA) is foundational to the student's instruction, assessment, and growth in these areas. It is a culminating activity for assessment and an instructional activity as these abilities are developed.

Comprehension

Some students may have slight, central auditory processing problems and were unsuccessful in a phonic-based program. Comorbid sensory integration problems or other deficit may hinder success in learning to read. Students who are not experiencing failure in other classes, may not be noticed or chosen for evaluation. Other reasons that students may not succeed in reading are emotional distress, moving often, or other events.

Multiple exposure/multiple context strategy

Little research is available on low-level readers for comprehension development. Most literature addresses strengthening comprehension for grade-level readers who are not strong in comprehension. Two older studies investigated the multiple exposure/ multiple context (ME/MC) strategy (McCormick 1994).

Historical Moments in English Language Learners’ Research

In the United States, research on English language learners (ELLs) has increased substantially since the turn of the century, including research on language and literacy development, instructional interventions, and educational assessments (Santi et al. 2019). A substantial body of research on ELLs has been published since the report of the National Literacy Panel (August et al. 2009). However, concerning the issue of ELL students with disabilities and the challenge of identification, little data has been collected. Historically, ELLs were overlooked for disability services due to the belief that their achievement difficulties are grounded in language proficiency issues that will be resolved with time, or they may be overrepresented because of inaccurate measures and/or poor identification procedures (Abedi 2006; Artiles et al. 2005). According to Santi et al. (2019), ELLs are at risk for impaired reading and language development for reasons other than the existence of disabilities, including socioeconomic disadvantage and poor instruction in one or both languages. Morgan et al. (2015) found that racial, ethnic, and language minority elementary and middle school students are less likely than similar white, English-monolingual students to be identified as having disabilities and are disproportionately underrepresented in special education. This study also reported that language-minority children were less likely to be identified with a learning disorder or language impairments.

Throughout the history of teaching English as a second language (ESL), instructors required that learners learn the language through memorization and repetition of the second language (L2) structures without exposing them to real-life situations that created another challenge for learners. These practices were unsuccessful in promoting ELLs’ capacity when communicating in different situations using the target language. Thus, incorporating new trends in English language teaching (ELT) through integrating meaningful materials and authentic tasks that represent real-world situations encourages the competencies of ELLs to transfer the language they are learning to situations beyond the classroom.

Research into applied linguistics and second language acquisition has also played an essential role in constructing and modifying different approaches and methods for ELT for the purpose of guiding ELLs to communicate effectively (Celce-Murcia 2001). Raising English language teachers’ awareness of how these approaches, methods, and strategies have evolved facilitates their ability to make well-informed teaching decisions.

On the evening of June 17th, 2015, Dylann Roof joined a Bible study at Mother Emanuel Church in Charleston South Carolina. It is known as Mother Emanuel because it is the church from which all subsequent African Methodist Episcopal (AME) congregations sprang. The AME church was the first independent black denomination in the United States, and it was founded by slaves and freed slaves in Charleston, the port through which more than one third of all enslaved Africans entered the United States. Roof was welcomed into their Bible study. He participated for an hour before standing up, pulling a Glock 45, and shouting, “I have to do it. You rape our women and you’re taking over our country. And you have to go” (Borden, Horwitz, Markon 2015). Nine people were killed. Three others survived their wounds. The next day, after his arrest, Dylann Roof, wearing a jacket with the flags of Rhodesia and apartheid South Africa, told police he had gone to Mother Emanuel in the hopes of starting a race war.

While it would be wrong to claim that Dylann Roof is typical, his act and his discourse are hardly a fluke. Racial violence has been a persistent part of the American imaginary from the founding of the country to the present: from slavery to the oftrepeated necessity to conquer, suppress, or annihilate the Native American population; to Donald Trump's campaign announcement that declared Mexican rapists were swarming across the border (“Leo Frank” 2018; Davis 2001: 280; Rushdy 2012: 123). Dylann Roof in Charleston, Robert Gregory Bowers at the Tree of Life Synagogue in Pittsburgh, the Charlottesville march, and David Duke are symptoms of a deep and persistent racism that has haunted American culture. In December 1890, a few days before the bloody massacre of 300 unarmed men, women, and children at Wounded Knee, South Dakota, and shortly after the murder of the Lakota holy man, Sitting Bull, L. Frank Baum, the beloved author of such children's classics as the Wizard of Oz opined in the Aberdeen, South Dakota newspaper he edited, the Saturday Pioneer:

This chapter delves into a crucial aspect of the existing research on nationalism in China, highlighting a notable issue that has emerged. The prevailing approach has tended to examine Chinese nationalistic sentiments as a unified whole, neglecting the inherent complexity and diversity within this phenomenon. Taking such a holistic perspective is overly simplistic and fails to account for the multifaceted nature of Chinese nationalists’ motivations and actions.

To rectify this oversight, it is imperative to categorize the various manifestations of consumer nationalism in China based on a range of indices. By doing so, we can gain a more nuanced understanding of this complex phenomenon. Therefore, this chapter aims to explore the distinct types of consumer nationalistic actions observed in China and elucidate the varying consequences associated with each type. In order to substantiate this argument, the chapter will present several illustrative cases.

The central contention put forth in this chapter is that contemporary consumer nationalism in China can be effectively classified into three distinct types, each engendering a different level of consequences. By differentiating these types, we can discern the specific motivations, behaviors, and outcomes associated with each category. This nuanced approach not only enriches our comprehension of consumer nationalism in China but also contributes to a more comprehensive analysis of nationalism studies in general.

Mapping the Field

Nationalism, as a widely acknowledged sentiment shaping both public and private spheres, has been prevalent since the late eighteenth century. Its influence on global politics can be understood through the concept of identifying the state or nation with its people. However, to grasp the concept of “consumer nationalism,” it is essential to differentiate it from related terms such as economic nationalism, commercial nationalism, consumer ethnocentrism, political consumerism, and consumer nationalism.

Economic nationalism

The term “economic nationalism” has a historical origin that can be traced back to the early twentieth century. It gained recognition through the works of notable economists and scholars who examined the concept in depth. One of the earliest instances of using this term can be attributed to American economist Alvin Johnson in 1917, who is renowned as one of the cofounders of the New School for Social Research.

In 1994, Derrida published the Politics of Friendship, a major work that followed on the heels of 1993's Specters of Marx and Khora. The latter two, while generally considered among Derrida's most important statements on Marx and Plato, were also, as he acknowledges, long deferred continuations of dialogues begun in his seminar twenty years prior. As I have shown (2016: chapter 2), Specters of Marx and Khora while possessed of undoubtedly complex genealogies, in many ways represent a settling of accounts with Julia Kristeva, Philippe Sollers, and the editorial collective that surrounded the avantgarde journal, Tel Quel. In the early 1970s, in the wake of the failed May 68 student uprising in Paris, political turmoil swept the lecture halls and seminar rooms of France. Many, searching for an authentically revolutionary alternative to the failed model of Soviet Marxism, turned to Mao's theory of cultural revolution. When Derrida refused to commit himself, there was a quiet but decisive break with Tel Quel. As a result, the once fast friends, Derrida, Sollers, and Kristeva, never spoke again, even once Sollers and Kristeva renounced politics upon their return from China (de Nooy 1998: 79–80, 90–91; Peeters 2010: 221–22, 263–292, 419–20).

Appendix

Historical Aspects

Accurate English spelling occurred when Gutenburg invented the printing press (Gutenburg 1439), as spelling was standardized because the printing press demanded that word spellings were consistent. Derivations of foreign words retained their spelling and did not exhibit different phonemes as pronunciation changed. Conspire and conspiracy retained the spelling of the root though pronunciation changed. English has many words with this phenomenon, which gives meaning constancy to the derivatives.

Spelling has an unusual place in the school curriculum. In the early days of the United States, spelling and orthography were subjects taught just as reading. Accurate spelling was considered a mark of an educated person. Spelling was taught with a linguistic approach for decades. As reading instruction became more phonetic, spelling maintained the linguistic approach. This was a wise decision, as language components of spelling are more linguistic than phonetic. Classes for spelling are vanishing from curriculums in the United States. Some school systems across the states do not teach formal spelling because of technological advances in computers and spell-checking algorithms. Adequate instruction is not available for students who need it. This led to many teachers who are poor spellers. Today, there appears to be a general professional bias that spelling is not that important, which is a detriment to the students of this country. The absence of spelling instruction causes a conundrum for students in special education as the DSM-V manual (Tobin & House 2016) requires Individual Educational Plans to provide for it. The federal mandate demands that special education teachers must devise goals for it. Poor spelling ability affects the quality of academic schoolwork across the upper grades. According to Moats et al. (2006), poor spellers use fewer words and have lower-quality compositions. Older methods of teaching spelling considered rote memorization to be the most expedient.

Research demonstrates that spelling is a complex linguistic ability. From the latter half of the twentieth century to the present, spelling has been recognized as a language ability connected to reading ability. Diagnosing a student with spelling deficiency is a finer diagnosis of reading problems than diagnosing reading errors. Spelling tells one exactly what the student knows about language constructions. Most remedial reading techniques consider a word mastered when it is reproduced accurately in writing.

Between War and Peace

At the core of Kanso's artistic practice is a steadfast belief in the possibility of change—in the certainty that we can do better, be better, and that futures full of peace and prosperity for every one of us is possible. He maintained this commitment throughout his lifetime, creating art that embodies it in defiance of those devoted instead to maintaining a status quo of protracted turmoil. His oeuvre swelled to take on accounts of many of the world's gravest atrocities, with series like The Split of Life offering a unique historical continuity, one that spans decades of both political and painterly movements and ruptures. It is a series he toured extensively across Latin America during Journey of Art for Peace and is one he came out of retirement to revisit in 2009 for one final exhibition in New York.

Organized less as a formal show and more as an archival opportunity, this artistic undertaking unfolded around a series of interviews conducted with Kanso before the paintings (Figure 4). It took as its focus the collective amnesia spawned across Lebanon by the Taif Agreement in 1990. With so much war-era pain and animosity still unresolved, tensions have threatened to simmer over into full-f ledged war ever since. An outbreak of militia-based conf lict in 2008 was, for example, reminiscent in scale and scope of the civil war, and made for a show that insisted on recounting political histories that so many in Lebanon are otherwise committed to forgetting. It is with Lebanon in the background of each frame that Kanso ref lected, at length, on these political agreements and abuses, all of which have so closely shaped both his life and oeuvre. Surrounded once more by his mobile murals, he narrated over four decades’ worth of political history through his art. Although recounted in succession, both his murals and commentary speak to a cyclical range of crises, all fought with so little regard for human life and loss.

This chapter argues that China's emergence as the world's number two economy presenting complexities for multinational businesses to navigate. Drawing on the author's own experience in training multinational businesses in China, the chapter highlights the rising tide of nationalistic sentiment in recent years, which has led to heightened outrage toward foreign brands for perceived offenses against China and Chinese interests. This wave of nationalism has reached a fever pitch, resulting in a climate of extreme caution among many multinational firms, including certain Chinese domestic companies that have partnered with foreign brands. As a result, these companies find themselves navigating a complex landscape when operating in the world's second-largest economy. They face pressures from various quarters, including the Chinese government's increasingly nationalistic stance, which seeks to tighten its governance and exert a direct role in business operations.

History of Multinational Business Development in China

China, as one of the world's largest economies, has emerged as a highly attractive investment destination for numerous multinational companies (MNCs), both Western and from other regions. Since its opening up in 1979 and the subsequent adoption of free market principles, China has experienced remarkable economic growth and transformation, becoming a prominent player on the global stage. Its vast market, abundant resources, and skilled workforce have made it an enticing prospect for businesses seeking growth and expansion opportunities. Over the years, China has established itself as a hub for manufacturing, technology, and services, attracting investments from a wide range of industries. The country's favorable business environment, improved infrastructure, and government initiatives to promote foreign investment have further contributed to its status as one of the world's most well-known and sought-after investment destinations.

However, the history of multinational business development in China extends far beyond the recent decades. In fact, it can be traced back to the late nineteenth century when foreign firms first set their sights on establishing a presence in the country. At that time, China's vast market and untapped potential presented an alluring opportunity for MNCs seeking avenues for growth and expansion. These early endeavors were primarily driven by the desire to access the Chinese market and cater to its burgeoning consumer base. The early twentieth century posed significant challenges for foreign firms operating in China.

Introduction: Physical, Environmental, and Anatomical Foundations of Speech

Social interaction is necessary for the development of language to proceed normally. Studies conducted by sociologists over hundreds of years show that social interaction is necessary for average to superior language development. A second important factor is intact sensory processing in the developing child. A child with a learning disorder may not only be affected in speech development but also early cognition. A child born lacking visual sequential memory abilities from birth on until school age will not remember the sequence of things taking place in their environment. When this situation is recognized by an adult(s), teaching can take place to aid this child in forming memories of action sequences. Memory of their early childhood will not match that of their siblings or parents, affecting cognition of their early world. Another facet of speech development is anatomical, and speech anomalies occur with cleft palates, harelip, and other anomalies of the throat and mouth articulators. Many can be corrected surgically, but some will leave a small speech impediment. It is the goal of this chapter to present the normal rudimentary learning that must take place for competence in speech to form.

Prenatal development

Emergent literacy begins in the womb (Broemmel et al. 2015). Two predominant factors impact the future production of the native language: the sounds and prosody. Chinese and English differ in prosody effect on the developing infant (Zhou et al. 2012). Developing infants hear the sounds of language for half of the gestation period and develop motor skills. The ability to suck a finger is noticeable on many sonograms as well as the infant's ability to scurry from the sonogram. Upon birth, the infant distinguishes human sounds from sounds of the environment. There is a degree of rudimentary knowledge in the womb. The fluid environment has some effect on sound quality. Infants recognize their mother's voice and process phrasing and prosody even though the words are not yet intelligible.

Vision, unlike the auditory channel that matures around the age of eight, continues to mature until about age 16 (Nelson 2001). The newborn infant has seeing ability, but it is not clear. Large items of black and white contrast are the best (Schlesinger 2001).