Introduction

Learning takes place in the central nervous system, and brain architecture allows us to master a myriad of tasks over a lifetime. It is helpful for instructors to understand where skill mastery is in the brain. This is where the interface of special education techniques for teaching students with reading challenges comes into play. The brain organization in each student becomes an area of inquiry. Instructors must know what processing areas could be causing a problem and be familiar with approaches and techniques that address the specific problem. It is not a situation of instructors having a “pet” program they feel is the best for all cases of dyslexia. Rather instructors need to identify possible areas causing the problem and choose programs or parts of programs that have the potential to remediate reading difficulties. Some approaches explained in this chapter are controversial and are included because controversy can indicate that an approach may be successful for some individuals but not the majority. Teachers in the classroom are meeting the expectations of reading success for every student so we do not want to exclude approaches that bring success to an individual student.

Place of assessment

Kindergarten and primary-grade students usually only receive authentic assessments. Teacher observation and benchmarks for progress are the basis for determining a developmental lag. Because of the time windows for certain abilities to develop, it is difficult to make judgments. Given time, the student may mature out of a perceived deficit. Usually, formal assessment and labeling do not take place until third grade. This is where Response to Intervention (RTI) is helpful. Young students are exposed to other methods of teaching reading, which may be a better match for them and allow them to succeed. If no progress is observed, this becomes documentation for further study. Informal assessment may ascertain a perceptual problem. Often, tests such as the Slosson Intelligence Test, the Wepman Auditory Perception Assessment, and an informal writing test are given to test the child for average intelligence and performance level. Teachers administer these tests, not school psychologists. If developmental lags are observed one of two things may happen.

The trouble with contemporary theory can be summed up by a single symptomatic fact: theory has become the property of English Departments. This is not a slur on the competence of my colleagues who study Anglophone texts. They deploy abstract concepts as well or better than most comparatists. Nonetheless, the fact is that most of today's theory derives, in origin if not in its latest incarnations, from continental thinkers who write in languages and from cultural perspectives that are quite literally foreign to their American expositors. Thus, as we shall see below, the works of theorists such as Derrida, Lacan, Foucault, and Kristeva, are often only truly understandable in terms of the complex dialogue that exists between these writers. That dialogue, moreover, forms part of the larger cultural context in which these thinkers are situated, a context that assumes detailed knowledge of a tradition of literary and philosophical understanding unavailable to most monolingual scholars.

Unfortunately, theory in most American universities is taught as critical methodology. It is taught as “theory”: that is, as a body of abstract concepts that students can use to produce “readings” of texts. The result is a series of ahistorical abstractions that are directly “applied” to texts to which they have no articulated discursive or dialogic relation. We receive a Bakhtinian reading of Thackeray, a Jaussian response to Keats, a Derridean—followed by a de Manian—deconstruction of Sidney, and an Irigarayan interpretation of Sterne. In this fashion, concrete historical interventions into specific critical and philosophical debates become metaphysical truths. The result is a perversion of these theorists’ intentions since postmodern theory in general and poststructuralist theory in particular aims to critique precisely the kind of transhistorical metanarratives into which their works have been transformed (Lyotard 1984). The deconstruction of the closure of western metaphysics thus becomes the absolutization of différance as a textual property (Derrida 1980: 536). The critique of patriarchy's specular subject comes to function as an abstract universal fully as phallic as the Symbolic structures it was designed to fight (Irigaray 1974: 173, 178; Ragland-Sullivan 1986: 273; Weed 1994: 101–02).

Introduction

The ancient history of writing development is interesting. It is a history of developmental spelling that every child goes through today when first learning to write words. Ancient language relied on pictograms or pictorial markings to indicate a subject and sequence of activities. The earliest writings only contained consonants for the words. These are the hard sounds of the language, no matter what the language may be. The next progression was the inclusion of vowels in syllable writing. The writing depicted parts of the word, not the whole word. As the vowels of the language stabilized, each whole individual word was depicted. This progression is seen in the dawn of the history of writing. As each child prepares to write words for the first time, we see this historical progression all over again, referred to as developmental spelling. This chapter outlines the maturation of the hand to accurately use a writing tool and produce cursive or manuscript.

When we speak of writing, it was previously assumed we meant cursive writing. In today's world, most people think only of manuscript because that is all they ever saw when they were in school. In some areas of the country, there is a debate about whether or not to teach cursive, whereas in other areas, it is an accepted fact that manuscript is best. There should be no debate because each, in its own way, has value. In this chapter, the value of each will be explained, relating the absolute need for cursive and the practicality of manuscript in certain instances.

Development of motor skills for handwriting and printing

To produce the marks of writing, a child goes through another developmental sequence. We notice that the newborn infant's hand has a very firm grasp, which at times is hard to pry open. It is a reflex when the palm is touched that becomes refined in its movements as the child matures and intentional grasping and touching are established (see Chapter 2). Though this appears firmly established, there is still more development in the hand for mature writing to take place. Parents are the first to notice some of the attributes of using a writing tool.

When Journey of Art for Peace was concluded in Geneva in 1993, so too was Kanso's tenure as a traveling artist. Save for a brief residency in Seoul between 1993 and 1994, marriage and family life drew him back to Atlanta, where he continued to sketch and paint—albeit at a much smaller scale—until his passing in 2019. The majority of Kanso's later works—several hundred of them—have never been exhibited. Still, diary entries and the beginnings of an autobiography emphasize the prospect of lasting peace as something toward which Kanso continued to work through his art despite his return to Atlanta. Endlessly debated and analyzed—philosophically, economically, socially, systemically, and otherwise—the very possibility of peace has occupied scientists and creatives alike for generations. And although abstract, and not particularly quantifiable, peace was a metric on which Kanso created art for decades simply because he believed it to be the natural, inner order of things. As Hernán López-Garay surmises in his 1997 essay “On the Possibility of World Peace,” if it is ever to be established, it will likely be realized “against men's own will.” Quoting Kant, he emphasizes the power structures that be as eventually having to answer to “no more and no less than nature, the great artist … through which men's own antagonisms will, eventually, give rise to harmony.”

Ushering humanity toward that fundamental promise required Kanso to revisit how his work stayed in circulation upon his return to Atlanta. Having foregone the commercial arrangements and relations necessary to keep his art on show independent of his own efforts, Kanso turned to selfpublishing as a more sustainable way of seeing his art out in the world, on his own terms.

Introduction

Clinical remedial programs to treat severe dyslexia require spelling mastery of the word. Most remedial approaches require writing with words learned. This is the strength of Language Experience Approach (LEA), which becomes important in teaching these students. Remedial reading may be described as the spelling route to reading. Exercises that engage the student in these activities ensure that students know the meaning and spelling of the word, and it is documented in assessments.

Well-researched techniques for the remediation of reading deficits are recommended. It is important to match techniques to a student's strengths. One remediation plan is not optimal for every dyslexic student because of the four global patterns of processing difficulties and individual variances. These variations include different characteristics not mentioned in the four global patterns due to documented research over the last 30 years.

As remedial plans are formulated for each student, a framework is developed to document how well the remedial plan illustrates positive results in the different literary tasks. This framework affords the student the opportunity to practice all literary tasks necessary for growth. The framework is authentic based on an LEA format. This becomes evident upon examination of exemplary remediation procedures for dyslexia. These procedures are termed clinical remediation because they are often individualized or very small group instruction. LEA or an adaptation of LEA becomes the standard for this documentation.

When something stated in a respected journal but not well-researched yields desired results, and the instructor notices something that might help a student, they should try it. Techniques originate this way, not in a vacuum. Being knowledgeable about perceptual processing abilities for reading and the techniques in place is a solid foundation for capitalizing on new techniques.

Remedial Programs for Specific Perceptual Processing Deficits

Two main areas comprise decoding deficits: lack of success in decoding and lack of lexical knowledge. These deficits reflect a lack of both phonological processing and morphological knowledge about word structure. Deficits in decoding may be from several different perceptual processing deficits. They occur with problems in auditory or visual processing or both, and possibly sensory integration. Lack of morphological knowledge results in students needing overt, explicit, and direct teaching.

Introduction

Several approaches in early childhood programs have embraced the concept of wholistic learning. A program is considered wholistic when it attempts to enhance the whole child in every developmental aspect as the child matures. Individual aspects of this development are not separated but overtly encouraged by student exploration and through teacher guidance. The connection between sensory-motor development, cognition, and literary abilities is strong. Several developmental programs for early childhood attempt to build background experiences that not only coordinate sensory-motor development but also enhance the child's ability to draw on this development as literary abilities evolve. Cognition is reinforced as the child internalizes these abilities and makes decisions for future actions. These programs recognize the importance of developing the whole child, taking into consideration the environment and the uniqueness of individual growth patterns, rather than compartmentalizing these as discrete subjects. This chapter develops the foundation of this type of teaching and describes early programs for wholistic comprehensive instruction for reading.

Types of cognition

Many researchers have developed theories for cognition that provide a look at different abilities and sub-abilities in the individual. Some are discrete, some are developmental for the child, and some are maturational through adulthood. It is worth considering these foundational theories that explain the areas of the brain involved and delineate the stages of growth. Wechsler's research in the area of verbal and nonverbal cognition allows us to understand anatomically where certain functions of cognition take place. In the left hemisphere of the brain, verbal information is learned, processed, and expressed. The left hemisphere processes in a linear, analytical manner and is sequentially oriented for processing. It is the seat of most language processing. The right hemisphere is functionalized for dreaming, intuition, visuospatial processing, quantitative thinking, and gestalt thinking.

There are four distinct hierarchical stages of cognition. Schema is considered the fundamental representation of a witnessed event or object. Symbol is a contrived mental representation standing for an event or an object. A concept is a representation of multiple events or objects. Rule pertains to a predictable relationship between multiple concepts.

Consumerism has undeniably emerged as a prominent aspect of contemporary Chinese society, permeating various facets of modern life. The proliferation and immense popularity of social media video channels such as Douyin, Billibilli, and WeChat have played a pivotal role in reinforcing and amplifying this consumerist trend in recent years. This phenomenon has been ideologically labeled as “consumerism as economic individualism,” signifying the intertwining of consumerism with notions of personal economic pursuits and individual aspirations.

Chinese citizens have noticeably embraced the role of self-managing consumers, adopting consumer values as a defining characteristic of China's modern culture. The pursuit of material goods, lifestyle upgrades, and the constant pursuit of the latest trends have become deeply ingrained in the mindset of Chinese consumers. This conspicuous manifestation of consumerism has not only transformed the economic landscape but has also brought about profound social and cultural changes. Within this context, it becomes imperative to explore the relationship between consumerism and nationalism in China.

This chapter focuses on the examination of nationalistic behaviors exhibited by Chinese citizens, shedding light on how consumerism intertwines with and shapes nationalist sentiments. By delving into the intricacies of the younger consumer base and scrutinizing their evolving consumer preferences, this chapter seeks to answer the compelling question: How is nationalism embedded in consumerism in China? Understanding the complex dynamics between consumerism and nationalism is crucial for comprehending the broader sociocultural and economic landscape in China. By unraveling the interplay between these two powerful forces, we can gain valuable insights into the multifaceted nature of Chinese society and its ever-evolving relationship with consumerism, ultimately shedding light on the intricate tapestry of modern Chinese culture. Consumerism in China (from Big Three to Luxury)

Consumerism, as a phenomenon, extends far beyond the borders of any single country. Nevertheless, it is in China that the scale and rapidity of its development have made it a remarkable case study for exploring the history and dynamics of this universal trend (Gerth, 2015). The embrace of consumerist values has sparked passionate debates, with proponents highlighting its ability to empower individuals by providing a means of self-expression through consumption—an attribute scholars often refer to as “agency.” On the other hand, critics of consumerism argue that it fosters a narcissistic culture, placing excessive emphasis on material possessions and superficial desires.

Introduction

The term literacy includes technology, which embraces the proficient use of available digital hardware and software (Williams et al. 2012). There are numerous technology software applications used today in schools. For instance, many classrooms have interactive whiteboards, computers, and online communication available (Gunaydin & Karamete 2016). Additionally, teachers and students may have handheld devices and smartphones at school or at home. According to Leu et al. (2004), the new technologies of this century need to be discovered and examined because everything that is read today is not textbook based.

Technology and LEA

Technology can be used to motivate and enhance the reading and writing process. One example of technology engagement is the introduction of the Language Experience Approach (LEA) writing of stories with a three-step approach: whole class application, small group application, and an individual application in the same manner as previously discussed in Chapter 1.

Whole Class Application

For example, for a whole class application, wordless picture books are projected on classroom screens for all the students to see. These books are employed as a stimulus for writing LEA student-generated stories that describe the events in the story. The teacher uses an interactive whiteboard to write the sentences the students create to describe the scenes in the wordless picture book. Important vocabulary words are colorhighlighted or underlined by the students. Punctuation can be bolded so that when the text is read aloud, students who have difficulty with punctuation can be visually aided to recognize where to stop, where to pause, etc. The teacher reads the LEA story to the whole class from the interactive whiteboard while the students watch and listen to the teacher's intonation and prosody. The students check if the recorded ideas are stated appropriately.

When student-generated stories are written on the interactive white board, a large size font should be employed while composing so that all students in the room can see. The teacher may place the student's initials beside the sentence that each student generated for the group story.

The advantage of using a computer to copy the stories is that the story can be printed when the exercise is finished, and each student can have a copy to take home and practice reading. Students use the copy in the classroom the next day to reread the story.

This book considers Russell Stauffer's Language Experience Approach (LEA) in detail. An approach must be judged by its impact on student learning and not on the age of conception. Here, we explore the nature of wholistic teaching in early childhood and beyond. The developmental maturation is explained for each different language task.

Theme One: Child Development and Wholistic Teaching

The first theme of shared information is child development and wholistic instruction. Both language arts instruction with researched language arts materials and with LEA, as either ancillary or solo instruction, have a place in the language arts curriculum. LEA is presented as a wholistic program of teaching beginning reading which includes all of the prime tenets of being geared to the development of the whole child in the literary tasks. When it is used as the main method of beginning reading instruction, it is more than adequate to offer everything necessary for success. If used as an ancillary program for beginning reading, it covers all the necessary items that enable the child to develop in a wholistic manner in the literary tasks. When used in the upper grades, it has the potential to aid student development in a myriad of ways needed for mature readers. Teaching literacy skills is a well-researched topic. There have been years of research on how to teach them, what to teach, and when to introduce them. In addition, many different techniques and strategies are available to teachers. Many research journal articles describe what works for different students. Assessment is also a wellstudied topic. Tests for different skills and students have been developed, offering grade levels, age levels, and standardized scoring. All of this attests to the scientific legwork that has been accomplished over the years that provides the field of education a strong background for enhancing developmental skills needed for beginning literacy tasks, choosing the correct methodology, and appropriately assessing progress.

Theme Two: Using LEA as a Stand-alone Approach or an Integrated Approach

Stauffer's conceptualization of LEA emphasizes early reading instruction, though he also has a protocol for struggling readers. One of the most essential points of LEA is that it enhances the ability for instruction to take place in a relaxed and natural setting whereby the students use what they know as a foundation for instruction.

Prior to its repatriation to Spain in 1981, Picasso's Guernica spent 42 years on show at the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in New York City. With debates on the natural home of the painting consuming the art world during Guernica's time abroad, that extended tenure at MoMA was not without major public contention. While Picasso himself did not wish to see the painting returned to Spain until democracy was established in his homeland, fellow artists, critics, and activists came to see the anti-war mural's exhibition in the United States as a disservice to its meaning and spirit in light of the country's protracted military operations abroad. But it was perhaps precisely because of that very context that Picasso famously shared his conviction that Guernica “would do most good in America.”

This faith that paintings could be said to do good for the places and people for which they are on show was a guiding principle of Kanso's Journey of Art for Peace exhibition (Figure 2.1). On tour internationally in various iterations between 1985 and 1993, the show was Kanso's decade-long attempt at building solidarity around the tragedies personified by his mural-scale, Split of Life art. With over ten years of mural works to pull from, the exhibition would become Kanso's longest-running show. Toured almost exclusively internationally, it showed dozens of murals—including Lebanon—across Latin America, Kuwait, and Switzerland.

Appendix A (Chapter 1)

A1 Stauffer's rational

• 1. Reading, writing, speaking, and listening occur in context with purposeful communication.

• 2. The interests, curiosities, culture, capacity, precepts, and concepts of each individual are used.

• 3. Use of word recognition and word identification is developed in a meaningful context ensuring the use of meaning clues.

• 4. Reading skills taught are assimilated and used.

• 5. Individual interests and understandings are extended and refined.

• 6. Appreciation of the value and uses of reading is afforded.

LEA is a total language arts approach relying heavily upon dictated stories, word banks, and creative writing. LEA is a comprehensive methodology that can be used to teach literacy.

A2 Wells (1979) list of essentials

• 1. They do not direct what the children say.

• 2. They are collaborative constructors of meaning.

• 3. They are attentive listeners.

• 4. Make attempts to use verbal and nonverbal cues to understand the child.

• 5. Help children extend their responses so that knowledge of the world and linguistic ability are fostered.

A3 Remedial approaches require a student to write the word from memory to consider it mastered

• 1. The Fernald method

• 2. Oton–Gillingham and its offshoots

  • a. Recipe for Reading

  • b. Slingerland Approach

  • c. Herman-Lexia

• 3. Reading Recovery

• 4. Words Their Way

• 5. Blau and Blau

• 6. Spalding

Appendix B (Chapter 2)

B1 Otis media

This condition is caused by fluid buildup in the middle ear, which obliterates some of the sound of speech for the young child. It interferes with the progression in which speech sounds are learned. These children learn to speak normally but do not really hear all of the speech sounds (American Academy of Pediatrics 2004). It may be caused by an allergic condition or a progression of ear infections. Treatment may contain both medicine and tubes placed in the ears of some children.

B2 Irregular speech

Since the window is quite large for speech to develop, it is difficult for parents to process if their child exhibits irregular speech. Another complicating factor is that not every child fits the normal developmental pattern, but they speak quite well and do not appear to have any problems with speech as they mature. But there are some blatant signs that all might not be progressing smoothly.

The current geopolitical context presents significant challenges for multinational companies (MNCs), especially those operating in countries that have disputes with their home country. This complexity is further intensified for MNCs in China or those heavily reliant on the Chinese market. The recent joint statement by G7 leaders emphasized the need to “de-risk” from China, acknowledging that completely “decoupling” any major economy from China is nearly impossible (Lee, 2023). As a result, there is now a widely recognized consensus on the importance of “de-risking” strategies when engaging with China across a wide range of countries (Gewirtz, 2023).

However, the interpretation and application of the term “de-risk” vary among different nations due to the inherent ambiguity of the concept and the varying levels of geopolitical tension each country has with China (Gewirtz, 2023). Consequently, for MNCs, it is crucial to possess comprehensive knowledge in two key areas related to China: a deep understanding of current policies governing foreign businesses and entities in China and a thorough comprehension of consumer cohorts in the Chinese market.

This book delves into both aspects, with a particular focus on comprehending the evolving landscape of consumer nationalism in China and providing guidance on how MNCs can effectively manage their public relationships within the Chinese market. By gaining insights into the dynamic policies and consumer sentiments in China, MNCs can formulate robust “de-risking” strategies that align with the unique challenges and opportunities presented by this complex environment.

The central focus and argument of this book revolve around the increasing risk that nationalist consumer outrage poses to businesses in China and those engaged with the Chinese market. As China faces growing diplomatic challenges on the international stage, MNCs will need to navigate these complexities with heightened caution by implementing strategic communication and public relations plans. Existing academic works on consumer nationalism in China primarily explore two key aspects: the delicate balancing act it presents for China's leaders and how the discourse of national pride and dignity reflects the complex interplay of China's ambivalent relationships with certain countries. While previous publications have provided valuable insights into the concept of consumer nationalism, its processes, participants, and initiatives, they have often overlooked the crucial analysis of its consequences.

Containers of film, slides, and tapes are stacked against the walls of the Kanso archive. The oldest boxes clatter with small, white-framed photo slides and canisters of 35mm film. The cameras used to capture them rest on the adjacent drawers. Others, newer cases, contain black VHS tapes and faded Polaroids, then stacks of glossy prints, CDs, and eventually a handful of USBs and hard drives. The artist that calls out from a few dozen of these tapes—home videos—gestures widely at various paintings, at the site of his first gallery in New York, at the crowd gathered to hear him speak at an exhibition in Caracas. The photos, both digital and analog, capture him at home in Lebanon or Atlanta, among friends, colleagues, and fellow artists around the world. Others turn a lens toward his art on exhibition, on show in the halls of research centers and peace museums—proof that they, at some point, had a devoted audience.

In the adjacent room, these same paintings—hundreds of them—are rolled tight against the light and humidity, their vibrant interiors muted by the blank undersides of the tan canvas. It has been decades since most of these massive, mural-scale artworks were on show—others still have yet to be exhibited. The adjacent bins of notes, diary entries, exhibition catalogs, letters, the beginnings of a memoir, and, elsewhere, of an autobiography, help piece together an understanding of this vast, unpublished archive—the life's work of Lebanese-American neo-expressionist Nabil Kanso (1940–2019).

The first of its kind on this artist and the result of a research fellowship wherein I was invited to work through this archive, this book lays the groundwork for scholarship on the art of Nabil Kanso—an essential yet hitherto unstudied pioneer of mural-scale, neo-expressionist art. It draws extensively on primary source material, including personal notes, diaries, sketchbooks, correspondences, paintings, watercolors, photographs, and recorded interviews, to recreate the public life and reception of his since-retired oeuvre.