Chapter 17 delves into one of the most challenging aspects of climate litigation: attributing climate change impacts to specific actors or actions. The author explores how courts and quasi-judicial bodies grapple with the scientific complexities of attribution. In particular, she analyses how these legal bodies assess and weigh the scientific evidence, navigate the inherent uncertainties, and determine the legal relevance of attribution findings in climate cases. Through a detailed review of key climate cases from around the world, the author uncovers a variety of approaches to the issue of attribution. These cases highlight the diverse legal strategies employed by litigants to establish the causal links necessary for liability and the evolving understanding of courts in grappling with scientific complexities. In distilling emerging best practice, the author identifies instances where courts have acknowledged the collective and cumulative nature of climate harms, accepted partial attribution as a basis for liability, and applied innovative legal doctrines to overcome attribution-related challenges.

Chapter 4 explores the intricacies of the legal principle of standing, its role in climate litigation, and how it impacts the ability of parties to bring climate change-related lawsuits to trial. The author discusses interpretations of standing across different jurisdictions, such as the United States, New Zealand, and countries in Europe, and explains how these interpretations can either impede or facilitate climate litigation. He distils emerging best practice from this analysis, providing an insightful guide for future climate lawsuits. The author then identifies emerging best practice in interpreting standing rules in a flexible manner, thus allowing a broader range of actors to bring climate-related lawsuits and enhancing access to justice.

Chapter 15 on State Responsibility provides an in-depth exploration of the circumstances under which States can be held responsible for climate change. The author starts by outlining the fundamental principles and conditions for State responsibility under international law. Her analysis bridges the gap between international and domestic law, shedding light on how each legal sphere influences the shape and contours of State responsibility in relation to climate change. Further, she enriches her analysis with insights drawn from key climate cases that have tested the limits of State responsibility. These cases reveal how courts and quasi-judicial bodies are grappling with the challenges of attributing climate harms to State actions and omissions, and the implications of holding States accountable for these harms. In distilling emerging best practice, the author identifies innovative judicial interpretations and legal strategies that have expanded the ambit of State responsibility in climate litigation.

Chapter 1 introduces The Cambridge Handbook on Climate Litigation. The editors provide an overview of the development of climate litigation and its landmark victories, including the Urgenda, Leghari, and KlimaSeniorinnen decisions. They illuminate how the Handbook will help judges, lawyers, scholars, and other actors navigate the labyrinth of legal intricacies that define the rapidly evolving climate change litigation landscape. To shed light on the methodology of the publication, the chapter details the empirical basis for the work, which involved an exhaustive cataloguing of climate litigation case law to date. This is followed by an explanation of the analytical framework that underpins each of the chapters – a framework focused on distilling ‘emerging best practice’. The latter portion of the chapter details each section of the Handbook and summarises the analyses of the contributing authors. Ultimately, the Handbook aims to inspire dialogue as well as robust and innovative legal reasoning in future climate cases.

Chapter 2 provides a primer on climate science for legal practitioners and scholars, and it offers essential scientific background to help readers understand the context of climate litigation. Based on reports of the latest (sixth) assessment cycle of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the authors begin with an overview of the components of the climate system, the carbon cycle, and the greenhouse gas effect. The second section looks backwards to show the influence that humans have had on climate change to date, while the third section focuses on the current impacts of climate change. The fourth section looks forward and presents future emissions scenarios and projected warming and impacts, highlighting both fast and slow onset climate changes. The final section evaluates progress toward the goals set in the Paris Agreement and explores strategies for stabilising global temperatures.

The powerful pedagogical affordances of technologies enable new forms of learning that can serve contemporary pedagogies such as task-based language teaching (TBLT) in different educational contexts. Indeed, technology and TBLT mutually nurture one another as technology sets a natural and authentic context for the realization of the methodological principles of TBLT, and TBLT offers a rationale and pedagogical framework for the selection and use of technology. Given the unique learning potential of technology-mediated TBLT and the relative newness of the field, it is essential to advance this area to fulfill the fruitful interface between the two fields of TBLT and technology. This chapter presents how this fusion offers language learning opportunities that would otherwise be difficult to orchestrate in traditional classroom contexts. It then provides a brief review of recent work in this area, paving the way toward an outline of future research and practice directions in the implementation of technology-mediated TBLT.

Mobile learning, including MALL (mobile-assisted language learning), is coming of age against the backdrop of an increasingly mobile, increasingly superdiverse world. This chapter presents an updated, more detailed version of the Pegrum’s 3 Mobilities Framework to guide educators in designing appropriate forms of mobile learning for their students. It offers examples at each of the levels of the framework, which are drawn, as appropriate, from across the Global North and the Global South: Level 1 – mobile devices (inside the classroom), Level 2A – mobile learners (inside the classroom), Level 2B – mobile learners (outside the classroom), and Level 3 – mobile learning experiences (outside the classroom). While reminding educators that their designs must always suit their intended learning outcomes, their students, and their contexts, the chapter demonstrates that it is at Level 3 that mobile learning most closely accords with the needs of mobile people in a mobile world.

Virtual reality (VR) is considered one of the most promising emerging technologies for learning. Its incorporation in education offers teachers and students endless opportunities to enjoy embodied experiences that would otherwise be inaccessible in a classroom setting (e.g. visiting Mount Everest or experiencing the cellular defense system from inside your body). The increasing popularity of VR has stimulated educators’ and researchers’ interest to explore its learning potential in education. In the present chapter we explore the historical development of VR, we discuss the pedagogical theories underpinning its use, describe its potential for language education, analyze empirical research, and make suggestions for future research.

The tremendous growth, development, application, and research of technological tools are revolutionizing how language education is performed. This chapter elaborates on the empirical and theoretical research concerned with technology-assisted second language writing instruction. It presents a historical perspective of computer-assisted language learning (CALL) and presents the main themes and technological tools for second language writing education, namely computer-automated metalinguistic corrective feedback, electronic and computer-delivered implicit and explicit feedback, video impact, web-based and wiki-mediated collaborative writing. The chapter is concluded by presenting recommendations for future research on technology-assisted second language writing instruction.

The main purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of an approach to blended learning, flipping the classroom, which has continued to gain much attention and recognition since it was popularized a decade ago. The chapter begins with a conceptualization of the flipped classroom approach, followed by a synthesis of relevant literature reviews in order to identify key research trends in (language) education over the past years. The chapter then explores some theoretical groundings for this approach (e.g. cognitive load theory, self-regulation theory, and sociocultural theory), and concludes with design guidelines based on scholarly recommendations and best practices of flipped learning.

After briefly touching upon the relevance of online communication to language learning and the learning of grammar in today’s world, the chapter opens with an introduction to the theoretical and historical background of grammar teaching. It then moves on to introduce some of the more popular and accessible forms of technology-based grammar instruction, elucidating how each one ties in with grammar teaching principles and pedagogical practices. Following this, relevant research practices are introduced, followed by recommendations for research and practice. The chapter ends with predictions for the future of technology-enhanced grammar teaching and learning.