The governance of farm animal welfare is led, in certain countries and sectors, by industry organisations. The aim of this study was to analyse the legitimacy of industry-led farm animal welfare governance focusing on two examples: the Code of Practice for the Care and Handling of Dairy Cattle and the Animal Care module of the proAction programme in Canada, and the Animal Care module of the Farmers Assuring Responsible Management (FARM) programme in the United States (US). Both are dairy cattle welfare governance programmes led by industry actors who create the standards and audit farms for compliance. We described the normative legitimacy of these systems, based on an input, throughput, and output framework, by performing a document analysis on publicly available information from these organisations’ websites and found that the legitimacy of both systems was enhanced by their commitment to science, the presence of accountability systems to enforce standards, and wide participation by dairy farms. The Canadian system featured more balanced representation, and their standard development process uses a consensus-based model, which bolsters legitimacy compared to the US system. However, the US system was more transparent regarding audit outcomes than the Canadian system. Both systems face challenges to their legitimacy due to heavy industry representation and limited transparency as to how public feedback is addressed in the standards. These Canadian and US dairy industry standards illustrate strengths and weakness of industry-led farm animal welfare governance.

Contrafreeloading (CFL) refers to animals’ tendency to prefer obtaining food through effort rather than accessing food that is freely available. Researchers have proposed various hypotheses to explain this intriguing phenomenon, but few studies have provided a comprehensive analysis of the factors influencing this behaviour. In this study, we observed the choice of alternative food containers in budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus) to investigate their CFL tendencies and the effects of pre-training, food deprivation, and effort required on the CFL tasks. The results showed that budgerigars did not exhibit significant difference in their first choices or the time interacting with less challenging versus more challenging food containers. Moreover, when evaluating each budgerigar’s CFL level, only half of them were identified as strong contrafreeloaders. Thus, we suggest that budgerigars exhibit an intermediate CFL level that lies somewhere between a strong tendency and the absence of such behaviour. Furthermore, we also found that food-deprived budgerigars tended to select less challenging food containers, and pre-trained budgerigars were more likely to choose highly challenging food containers than moderately challenging food containers, which means that the requirement of only a reasonable effort (access to food from moderately challenging food containers in this study) and the experience of pre-training act to enhance their CFL levels, whereas the requirement of greater effort and the experience of food deprivation act to decrease their CFL levels. Studying animal CFL can help understand why animals choose to expend effort to obtain food rather than accessing it for free, and it also has implications for setting feeding environments to enhance the animal welfare of captive and domesticated animals.

When targeting human behaviour change for animal welfare improvement, engaging with communities is vital. Equid-reliant communities are often resource poor, geographically isolated and disparities in literacy rates are common, presenting challenges to ‘traditional’ forms of engagement. Arts-based initiatives using non-written communication methods such as storytelling and performance, may be ideal media to convey positive welfare messages. In this study we evaluate the feasibility of using forum theatre to sensitise donkey-reliant communities regarding key welfare issues. Through a co-creation process, a piece of interactive forum theatre on donkey welfare was produced and staged for the public and in local schools. Post-performance questionnaire data were collected from adults and both pre- and post-performance data in schools to evaluate changes in knowledge and attitudes resulting from the performance. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected using Likert scales and open questions, respectively. Audience feedback was positive, with more than 90% of audiences strongly agreeing that they enjoyed the performance. More than 85% of adult respondents strongly agreed that the performance raised their awareness of three key indicators: donkey health needs; donkey welfare needs; and how much donkeys should carry. For youth audiences, comparison of pre- and post-performance measures demonstrated positive changes in the belief that donkeys feel pain, how much individuals liked donkeys and how confident they felt in identifying how a donkey was feeling. Although participatory arts-based approaches remain rare in the animal welfare sector, the study highlights the potential value of these methods in promoting community engagement for positive animal welfare changes.

The COVID-19 pandemic led to unprecedented lockdowns with rippling impacts on the lives of humans and animals alike. Since zoos were among the first institutions to close during the pandemic, the lockdowns presented the opportunity to conduct a natural experiment examining the relationship between visitor presence and the welfare of zoo-housed animals. In this study, we assessed the welfare of six Sumatran orangutans (Pongo abelii) at Toronto Zoo both during and following the pandemic lockdowns. We compared behavioural and physiological indicators of welfare during a lockdown and after visitors were reintroduced. Specifically, if the orangutans’ welfare was affected by the visitor re-introduction phase we predicted there would be an increase in the following measures: (1) use of exhibit areas away from visitors; (2) behavioural measures (hiding, self-directed behaviours, agonistic behaviours, agitated movement, and idiosyncratic object-directed behaviours [head slamming, and fabric tearing]); and (3) physiological measures (faecal consistency and glucocorticoid metabolites) when compared to the lockdown. We also measured changes in activity levels such as foraging and inactivity. We found that orangutan exhibit space use did not change when visitors were reintroduced. In fact, the orangutans hid less when visitors were introduced than during the lockdown. Foraging, inactivity, and other behavioural indicators of stress did not change when visitors were introduced. Similarly, neither faecal consistency nor glucocorticoid metabolites changed across the study phases. Our data show that visitor re-introduction did not negatively affect the welfare of the Toronto Zoo orangutans. However, the presence of keepers was found to affect the behaviour of the orangutans and warrants further study.

Obesity and its comorbidities (e.g. laminitis) are identified as major welfare issues among domestic equids in the United Kingdom (UK) and abroad. Weight-management typically focuses on restricting consumption (e.g. limiting pasture grazing), often facilitated through stabling. This leads to social isolation, prompting other welfare issues. Increased exercise may be a preferable solution for equine obesity, if viable. The aims of this study were to explore horse (Equus caballus) owner perceptions regarding the importance of exercise, and to investigate how exercise provision related to welfare outcomes. Data obtained via an online survey from 804 UK horse owners indicated that most respondents’ horses were managed in obesogenic conditions, and 40% were owner-reported as overweight/obese. Exercise-related variables (e.g. if a horse was ridden) correlated with physical health problems, including decreased reports of laminitis and Equine Metabolic Syndrome. Approximately 90% of respondents reported that barriers outside of their control substantially limited opportunities to provide human-led exercise (e.g. riding, lunging). Analysis of a hypothetical weight-management scenario found owners with horses at livery yards felt significantly less able to increase horses’ self-directed exercise (e.g. free movement in fields/pastures) than owners keeping horses on their own properties. These findings indicate that while increased exercise may improve welfare, owner knowledge is not the only barrier that must be overcome to implement this prospective solution. Both human-led and self-directed exercise appear limited by a lack of opportunities available to horses and humans. These results justify future investigations into alternative management strategies as potentially viable methods of increasing exercise to improve welfare.

Minimising suffering is an ethical and legal requirement in animal research. This is particularly relevant for research on animal models of sepsis and septic shock, which show rapid progression towards severe stages and death. Specific and reliable criteria signalling non-recovery points can be used as humane endpoints, beyond which a study cannot be allowed to progress, thus preventing avoidable suffering. Body temperature is a key indicator for assessing animal health and welfare and has been suggested to have potential for monitoring the status of mouse models of sepsis. In this study, we monitored temperature variations using contactless methods – thermal imaging and subcutaneously implanted PIT tags – in a surgical model of sepsis by caecal ligation and puncture (CLP). We monitored body temperature variation following mid-grade CLP, high-grade CLP and sham surgery. All mice (Mus musculus) were monitored four times per day in the high-grade CLP model and three times per day in the mid-grade CLP model by both PIT tag readout and infrared thermography for ten days post-surgery, or until animals reached a predefined humane endpoint. Thermal data were compared with the clinical score and weight loss threshold used at our facility. Mean body surface temperature (MBST) assessed by thermal imaging and subcutaneous temperature (SCT) measured by PIT tags correlated, albeit not strongly. Moreover, while MBST does not appear to be a reliable predictor of non-recovery stages, SCT showed promise in this regard, even surpassing the widely used weight loss criterion, particularly for the high-grade CLP model of induced sepsis.

Competitive dressage’s social licence to operate is in jeopardy due to ethical concerns surrounding the use of horses for dressage. There is limited research that contributes to our understanding of Canadian equestrian perspectives on the use of horses in dressage. The objectives of this study were to: (1) explore the cultural context of the Canadian dressage industry, including how horse well-being is integrated within the culture; and (2) investigate coaches’ and riders’ perceptions and experiences with the use of horses for dressage. An ethnographic case study approach was employed, where MR spent 2–6 weeks with each of the four participating Equestrian Canada Certified dressage coaches and their riders (at least four riders per coach for a total of 19 riders). Data collection included direct observation, recording field notes and conducting at least one in-depth interview with each coach and rider. Interviews and field notes were analysed using reflexive thematic analysis leading to the development of three themes: (1) the systems that participants operate within; (2) how these systems foster a culture of contradiction in the industry; and (3) the ‘equestrian dilemma’ highlighting how participants navigate their love for horses with their horses’ well-being amid the sport’s demands. The three themes portray that the issues faced by the dressage industry may be rooted in systemic problems and could be described as a ‘wicked problem’. These results aim to inform future research initiatives that promote a holistic understanding of the challenges faced by the dressage industry and promote systems thinking solutions.

Based on experiences from stakeholders, this paper describes and discusses Danish emergency procedures when animal transport vehicles overturn, from a One Welfare perspective. Twenty qualitative interviews were conducted with selected stakeholders involved in emergency responses and their co-ordination. Results from interviews were extracted and are presented as a description of the Danish emergency management procedures in situations where pig transport vehicles overturn in a traffic accident. The description is followed by a discussion of six identified themes related to animal welfare and One Welfare in such situations: (1) Standard operating procedures; (2) Balancing animal welfare and work safety; (3) Roles, education and experience; (4) Communication, time and access to animals; (5) Debriefing; and (6) Killing of animals. Overall, the analyses of the interviews showed that the emergency response at an overturned pig transport vehicle involves different professional groups, requires technical knowledge regarding animal transport vehicles as well as knowledge of the species involved and how to handle the animals. The results are discussed from a One Welfare perspective, suggesting that these emergency responses include an inherent societal prioritisation dilemma involving the balancing of, for example, training, preparation and debriefing of different professional groups. Further research is needed to address ethical considerations, share best practices, and enhance emergency protocols.

The adjustment period — wherein adopted animals transition to their new home — is a critical time for animal welfare and owner satisfaction, yet literature varies in estimates of how long this period lasts in dogs. This study sought to better characterise the adjustment period in relation to owner experience and canine welfare and clarify its duration as perceived by owners. We used a qualitative approach to examine owner perceptions of duration and their experience of the adjustment period. Twenty-seven interviews were conducted and analysed using thematic content analysis. Six themes were described: adjustment period duration; behavioural indicators during adjustment; behaviours indicative of adjustment; factors influencing adjustment; owner change in routine; and adjustment concerns. Over half of participants perceived the adjustment period to last longer than four months. Behaviours used by owners to assess dog adjustment included: moderation of behavioural extremes (e.g. lethargy and restlessness); play; tail wagging; greeting; and learning their routine. Owners reported that prior experiences and medical needs impacted the adjustment duration, that they adjusted aspects of their lifestyle, and raised concerns about being the right fit for their dog. Future research should incorporate a longer time-frame to better understand how and when dogs adjust to a home, and as there is variation in dog behaviour during adjustment, it must also account for individual differences. As we develop a better understanding of how to characterise this period, adopters can be better prepared for the initial months of dog ownership, and interventions can be individualised to improve owner experience and dog welfare.

Veterinarians are custodians of animal welfare, ensuring practices remain current and effective in the face of the ever-changing demands of the profession. Continuing Professional Development (CPD) is essential for protecting animal welfare, however access to quality CPD is a challenge in many countries. India has one of the fastest growing veterinary industries globally, emphasising the importance of accessible CPD opportunities that are relevant to this setting. This study used focus groups to explore how Indian veterinarians identify relevant CPD, barriers they encounter, and their experiences with CPD. We describe three themes: (1) ‘career vs calling’, where veterinarians’ extrinsic and intrinsic motivational factors were identified, such as their desire to protect animal welfare; (2) being ‘willing to learn but can’t’, with context-specific barriers, such as accessing reliable CPD information; and (3) ‘real interactions matter’, where participants described how pedagogical design influenced their choices, e.g. being able to observe animal welfare improvements through practical teaching. We have three recommendations: firstly, to improve CPD learning opportunities informed by evidence-based methods, to meet knowledge and skills gaps such as the high demand for practically focused training; secondly, the development of a unified accreditation and quality assurance framework to assess content, relevance and delivery standards of available CPD options to veterinarians; and, lastly, improved support from employers to address current barriers and facilitate attendance. These findings contribute to the current knowledge gap of factors that influence Indian veterinarians’ experiences of attaining relevant, accessible CPD and makes suggestions to improve standards of veterinary care and, ultimately, patient welfare.

In the UK and the Republic of Ireland, Official Veterinarians (OVs) are employed by the Food Standards Agency and the Food Safety Authority, respectively, as legal authorities for both animal welfare and food safety. However, little is known about job satisfaction in this profession which has the potential to impact professionals’ well-being and performance. Moreover, despite animal welfare issues being a reality that OVs witness, we do not yet understand how OVs perceive these issues at slaughter or whether this impacts job satisfaction. We assessed OVs’ perceptions on job satisfaction and views on welfare at slaughter across the UK and ROI, through an online questionnaire with 113 participants, which included socio-demographic information of participants and questions or statements about different aspects of job satisfaction and animal welfare issues at slaughter. While most OVs committed to their work they reported issues that may compromise job satisfaction, such as often experiencing loneliness at work, threatening situations and sleep disorders. Moreover, job satisfaction was often impacted by animal welfare incidents, and conflicts with food business operators were considered one of the greatest barriers to improving welfare at slaughter. There is also the likelihood of professionals’ individual ethical values being challenged since OVs are virtually certain to witness religious slaughter yet disagree with this practice to the extent that they consider it should be banned. We reveal significant challenges associated with the role of OV that justify creation of a support network to assist and safeguard this profession, as well as animal welfare at slaughter.

Organisations for which sentient animals are central to the business model need to demonstrate the safeguarding of animal welfare and well-being. This requires providing positive experiences for animals which is critical to maintaining the social licence to operate. A cross-sectional survey captured the attitudes of experienced horse sector participants regarding sentience, welfare and well-being. Almost all respondents (99.9%; n = 676/677), believed horses were sentient. Analysis of open-ended responses identified two themes: (1) Sentience is a pathway to understanding the mental state, welfare and well-being of horses; and (2) A moral obligation for humans to consider sentience. Respondents’ observations that horses reacted to stimuli and responded to their surroundings underpinned their belief that horses were sentient. Theme one related to respondents’ understanding of sentience and how sentience informed their interpretations of horse behaviours and the making of inferences regarding the equine mental state. Theme two related to a moral obligation believed to exist towards horses because humans manage the horses’ environment and need to consider the impact of their interactions with horses. These obligations were perceived as responsibilities to consider sentience when determining good welfare and well-being in horse activity settings, when interacting with horses and when training and competing with horses. The results suggested a sophisticated understanding of sentience existed among experienced horse sector participants, who recognised the sentient horse as worthy of care. We propose that leveraging experienced participants’ existing knowledge of sentience could support the implementation of the Five Domains model when updating organisational policies.

Pens for farmed mink (Neogale vison) commonly include separate nesting areas to provide privacy and warmth in the perinatal period. However, standard bedding materials may not be sufficient to allow intrinsically motivated nest-building behaviours in dams. Further, these materials may not produce optimal nest structures for the rearing of kits. In the present study, we provided extra, relatively high-quality nest-building materials and a chewable sisal rope enrichment for mink dams in the perinatal period (a group enriched at whelping; EW). The effects of these enrichments on various measures of welfare and maternal behaviour were compared to those of mink dams in standard housing (SH) and mink dams whose kits were enriched later in development (EK). EW dams performed less stereotypic behaviour and built higher quality nests than dams of other housing conditions, although dams’ basal faecal cortisol metabolite levels (FCM) were not affected. The stress responsiveness of these dams’ offspring was later assessed by sampling FCM before and after a handling event, however, this event did not appear to induce a measurable stress response and thus no conclusions could be drawn regarding effects of perinatal enrichment on HPA-axis development. Overall, provision of higher quality nest-building materials and a chewable rope enrichment benefited dam stereotypic behaviour and nest building in the perinatal period. We present suggestions for future studies to further investigate whether perinatal enrichment can impact maternal care and offspring HPA-axis development in mink.

A single manipulable enrichment is often introduced to the pens of farmed American mink (Neogale vison) to combat stereotypic behaviour and behaviours or temperaments associated with poor welfare (e.g. inactivity, fear, and aggression). This enrichment is provided early in life, but it is unclear the age at which enrichment is most effective at preventing stereotypic behaviour and ameliorating welfare. Here, a group of enriched kits (EK) were provided with multiple enrichments that were periodically exchanged to renew novelty from 4–15 weeks of age, earlier than typical enrichment provision on farms, after which they were housed with a single standard enrichment into adulthood. The effects of EK enrichment on kit behaviours and long-term stereotypic behaviour were compared to that of two groups reared with a single standard enrichment (standard housed; SH and enriched at whelping; EW). Inactivity in the nest-box was decreased in EK kits as juveniles relative to other groups, however, social play was reduced and lying awake was increased compared to EW and SH juveniles, respectively. Stereotypic behaviour in the kits as adults was not prevented by EK interventions; in fact, EK kits may have developed more diverse sub-types of stereotypic behaviour than EW and SH kits. Moreover, kit temperament did not appear to be affected. EK enrichment may have been ineffective in improving welfare due to the timing of its removal or potential frustration induced by its removal. Recommendations are provided for future research regarding critical periods of enrichment to improve welfare in species such as farmed mink.