Despite the lack of another Flagship-class mission such as Cassini–Huygens, prospects for the future exploration of Saturn are nevertheless encouraging. Both NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA) are exploring the possibilities of focused interplanetary missions (1) to drop one or more in situ atmospheric entry probes into Saturn and (2) to explore the satellites Titan and Enceladus, which would provide opportunities for both in situ investigations of Saturn’s magnetosphere and detailed remote-sensing observations of Saturn’s atmosphere. Additionally, a new generation of powerful Earth-based and near-Earth telescopes with advanced instrumentation spanning the ultraviolet to the far-infrared promise to provide systematic observations of Saturn’s seasonally changing composition and thermal structure, cloud structures and wind fields. Finally, new advances in amateur telescopic observations brought on largely by the availability of low-cost, powerful computers, low-noise, large-format cameras, and attendant sophisticated software promise to provide regular, longterm observations of Saturn in remarkable detail.

Our understanding of Saturn’s magnetosphere has been drastically changed over the last decade, since the arrival of Cassini, the first spacecraft to go into orbit around the planet. The trajectory of Cassini allowed the Saturnian magnetosphere to be studied both in the equatorial plane and at high latitudes, in a wide range of radial distances and local time sectors. This chapter reviews the current picture of Saturn’s global magnetospheric configuration and describes the local fields and particle properties in key regions like the radiation belts and the inner, middle and outer magnetosphere. The moon Enceladus, deep in the magnetosphere, is the major source of neutrals and charged particles in the magnetosphere, and in this chapter we describe how the particles are generated, transported and lost within the highly dynamic magnetosphere. We also describe how both particles and fields in the Saturnian magnetosphere vary with time, both on shorter timescales and with Saturn’s seasons. We highlight some of the most recent findings and discoveries, including a formerly unknown electric field oriented in the noon-midnight direction. Finally, we discuss magnetospheric measurements planned for the final sequence of the Cassini mission in 2017, called the “Grand Finale,” along with a list of open questions to be solved by future missions.

The longevity of Cassini’s exploration of Saturn’s atmosphere (a third of a Saturnian year) means that we have been able to track the seasonal evolution of atmospheric temperatures, chemistry and cloud opacity over almost every season, from solstice to solstice and from perihelion to aphelion. Cassini has built upon the decades-long ground-based record to observe seasonal shifts in atmospheric temperature, finding a thermal response that lags behind the seasonal insolation with a lag time that increases with depth into the atmosphere, in agreement with radiative climate models. Seasonal hemispheric contrasts are perturbed at smaller scales by atmospheric circulation, such as belt/zone dynamics, the equatorial oscillations and the polar vortices. Temperature asymmetries are largest in the middle stratosphere and become insignificant near the radiative-convective boundary. Cassini has also measured southern-summertime asymmetries in atmospheric composition, including ammonia (the key species forming the topmost clouds), phosphine and para-hydrogen (both disequilibrium species) in the upper troposphere; and hydrocarbons deriving from the UV photolysis of methane in the stratosphere (principally ethane and acetylene). These chemical asymmetries are now altering in subtle ways due to (i) the changing chemical efficiencies with temperature and insolation and (ii) vertical motions associated with large-scale overturning in response to the seasonal temperature contrasts. Similarly, hemispheric contrasts in tropospheric aerosol opacity and coloration that were identified during the earliest phases of Cassini’s exploration have now reversed, suggesting an intricate link between the clouds and the temperatures. Finally, comparisons of observations between Voyager and Cassini (both observing in early northern spring, one Saturn year apart) show tantalizing suggestions of non-seasonal variability. Disentangling the competing effects of radiative balance, chemistry and dynamics in shaping the seasonal evolution of Saturn’s temperatures, clouds and composition remains the key challenge for the next generation of observations and numerical simulations.

This chapter summarizes our current understanding of the ionosphere of Saturn. We give an overview of Saturn ionospheric science from the Voyager era to the present, with a focus on the wealth of new data and discoveries enabled by Cassini, including a massive increase in the number of electron density altitude profiles. We discuss recent ground-based detections of the effect of “ring rain” on Saturn’s ionosphere, and present possible model interpretations of the observations. Finally, we outline current model-data discrepancies and indicate how future observations can help in advancing our understanding of the various controlling physical and chemical processes.

Saturn formed beyond the snow line in the primordial solar nebula, and that made it possible for it to accrete a large mass. Disk instability and core accretion models have been proposed for Saturn’s formation, but core accretion is favored on the basis of its volatile abundances, internal structure, hydrodynamic models, chemical characteristics of protoplanetary disk, etc. The observed frequency, properties, and models of exoplanets provide additional supporting evidence for core accretion. The heavy elements with mass greater than 4He make up the core of Saturn, but are presently poorly constrained, except for carbon. The C/H ratio is super-solar, and twice that in Jupiter. The enrichment of carbon and other heavy elements in Saturn and Jupiter requires special delivery mechanisms for volatiles to these planets. In this chapter we will review our current understanding of the origin and evolution of Saturn and its atmosphere, using a multi-faceted approach that combines diverse sets of observations on volatile composition and abundances, relevant properties of the moons and rings, comparison with the other gas giant planet, Jupiter, and analogies to the extrasolar giant planets, as well as pertinent theoretical models.

Our knowledge of Saturn’s neutral thermosphere is far superior to that of the other giant planets due to Cassini Ultraviolet Imaging Spectrograph (UVIS) observations of 15 solar occultations and 26 stellar occultations analyzed to date. These measurements yield H2 as the dominant species, with an upper limit on the H mole fraction of 5%. Inferred temperatures near the lower boundary are ~150 K, rising to an asymptotic value of ~400 K at equatorial latitudes and increasing with latitude to polar values in the range of 550–600 K. The latter is consistent with a total estimated auroral power input of ~10 TW generating Joule and energetic particle heating of ~5–6 TW that is more than an order of magnitude greater than solar EUV/FUV heating. This auroral heating would be sufficient to solve the “energy crisis” of Saturn’s thermospheric heating if it can be efficiently redistributed to low latitudes. The inferred structure of the thermosphere yields poleward-directed pressure gradients on equipotential surfaces consistent with auroral heating and poleward increasing temperatures. A gradient wind balance aloft with these pressure gradients implies westward, retrograde winds ~500 m s−1 or Mach number ~0.3 at mid-latitudes. The occultations reveal an expansion of the thermosphere peaking at or slightly after equinox, anti-correlated with solar activity, and apparently driven by lower thermospheric heating of unknown cause. The He mole fraction remains unconstrained, as no Cassini UVIS He 58.4 nm airglow measurements have been published.

The aurorae of each planet are produced as a direct interaction between the upper atmosphere and magnetosphere of that planet. Energetic particles from the magnetosphere are driven into the top of the atmosphere, depositing energy there, and ultimately resulting in an electromagnetic emission. As a result, aurorae are related to conditions within the planetary magnetospheres so an understanding of the auroral emission provides a view of both the magnetospheric structure and how that magnetosphere is coupled with the underlying ionosphere. In the past, Saturn’s magnetosphere, and thus its aurorae, have been seen as something of a hybrid between the solar-wind-driven interaction at Earth and the rotationally dominated system at Jupiter. However, observations across a wide wavelength range by both the Cassini spacecraft and supporting Earth-based telescopes have revealed Saturn’s aurorae to be highly complex. We now recognize that Saturn’s aurorae are driven by the dynamic magnetic field interactions between the atmosphere, the solar wind and plasma trapped within the magnetosphere, all strongly affected by the rapid rotation of the planet.

In this chapter, we highlight the broad variety of auroral features observed at Saturn, and discuss how these are generated by energetic particles moving within current systems that link to solar wind interactions (Section 7.2), interactions with plasma generated within the magnetosphere (Section 7.3) and with current systems that vary periodically, including those linked to weather systems within Saturn’s upper atmosphere (Section 7.4). Finally, we conclude with a discussion of the major questions that remain about Saturn’s aurorae, and summarize the upcoming observations that will help us answer them. We begin with a discussion of how the auroral emission is generated and the characteristics of aurorae observed at Saturn. In particular, we highlight the most recent auroral research, following on from the overview of Saturn’s auroral processes presented in past reviews of the subject (for example, Kurth et al. 2009).

The magnetometer measurements taken by Cassini have confirmed the unusual character of Saturn’s internal magnetic field known from previous flybys and have revealed additional properties that suggest a rather unique dynamo in this planet. Within measurement uncertainty, the internal magnetic field is completely symmetric with respect to Saturn’s spin axis. The upper limit on the tilt of the magnetic dipole could be reduced from 1 to 0.06 degree. Moreover, only axisymmetric quadrupole and octupole moments are needed to fit the data. The lack of non-axisymmetric field components prevents a reliable determination of the bulk rotation rate of Saturn’s deep interior. Using data from Cassini’s closest approach to Saturn during orbit insertion, the magnetic moments of degrees four and five have been determined. The spatial power spectrum shows a zig-zag pattern with high power in odd spherical harmonic degrees and low power in even degrees. Compared to a simple dipole field, this corresponds to a concentration of magnetic flux towards the rotation poles. The flux concentration becomes progressively more pronounced when the field is continued into the interior. Comparison of the Cassini field model with that based on the Pioneer 11 and Voyager 1 and 2 measurements taken roughly 30 years earlier suggests that the secular variation of Saturn’s field is at least one order of magnitude slower than that of the Earth. A viable explanation for most of the unusual field properties is that a stably stratified and electrically conducting layer, formed by a partial demixing of helium from metallic hydrogen, exists on top of a “standard” dynamo in Saturn’s deep interior. This dynamo, driven by thermal and compositional convection, generates a magnetic field that is moderately asymmetric and time dependent. Rapid time variations and non-axisymmetric field components are filtered out in the stable layer by a skin effect. This model also implies that the top of the active dynamo may be located rather deep in Saturn’s interior and the geometric drop-off of the dipole strength with the radius cubed could explain the unexpectedly low field strength at Saturn’s surface. The stable layer model does not provide an explanation for the magnetic flux concentration towards the poles. Strong differential rotation in the dynamo region can have this effect, but a physical mechanism for such a flow state remains to be explored. From magnetic measurements to be taken during the very close approaches in the Grand Finale of the Cassini mission, we can expect to characterize Saturn’s magnetic field up to at least spherical harmonic degree nine and possibly to detect weak non-axisymmetric field components, which would enable an accurate determination of Saturn’s rotation period.

In December 2010, a major storm erupted in Saturn’s northern hemisphere near 37° planetographic latitude. This rather surprising event, occurring at an unexpected latitude and time, is the sixth “Great White Spot” (GWS) storm observed over the last century and a half. Such GWS events are extraordinary, planetary-scale atmospheric phenomena that dramatically change the typically bland appearance of the planet. Occurring while the Cassini mission was on orbit at Saturn, the Great Storm of 2010–2011 was well suited for intense scrutiny by the suite of sophisticated instruments onboard the Cassini spacecraft as well by modern instrumentation on ground-based telescopes and onboard the Hubble Space Telescope. This GWS erupted on 5 December close to the peak of a westward jet and generated a major dynamical disturbance that affected the whole latitude band from 25° to 48°N. At the upper cloud level, following the rapid growth of the bright outbreak spot, a blunt aerodynamic-shaped head formed due to interaction of the spot with the westward zonal jet, with the winds reaching velocities of 160 m s−1 along the periphery of the arc. Eastward of the head, the disturbance progressed in the following months forming a turbulent wake or tail with growing vortices, one of them a major enduring anticyclone (called AV) with a size of ~11,000 km. Lightning events were prominent and detected as outbursts and flashes at the head and along the disturbance at both optical and radio wavelengths. The activity of the head ceased after about seven months when AV reached it, leaving the cloud structure and ambient winds perturbed. The tops of the optically dense clouds of the head reached the 300-mbar altitude level (~50 km below tropopause), where a mixture of ices was detected, including (1) a component of water ice lofted over 200 km altitude from its 10-bar condensation level, (2) ammonia ice as the predominant component and (3) a component that might be ammonium hydrogen sulfide ice. The energetics of the frequency and power of lightning, as well as the estimated power generated by the latent heat released in the water-based convection to create the observed dynamical three-dimensional flows, both indicate that the power released for much of the 7-month lifetime of the storm (~1017 Watts) was a significant fraction of Saturn’s total radiated power (~2.2 1017 W). A post-storm depletion of ammonia vapour was also measured in the upper troposphere. The effects of the storm propagated into the stratosphere, forming two warm air masses at the ~0.5- to 5-mbar pressure level altitude that later merged into a so-called “beacon” because of its 80 K temperature excess relative to its surroundings. Related to the stratospheric disturbance, hydrocarbon composition excesses were found, in particular for ethylene (C2H4), in the high stratosphere at the ~0.1- to 0.5-mbar altitude level. Numerical models of the storm dynamics explain the major observed features that essentially result from two processes: (1) a huge and sustained, moist, convective storm at the water clouds (altitude level 10–12 bar, or ~250–275 km below the tropopause) and (2) the interaction of the updraft columns with the ambient winds that generates the turbulent wake consisting of vortices and waves. Model simulations of the GWS require a low vertical shear of the zonal winds and low static stability across the weather layer where the disturbance develops. Its upward propagation into the stratosphere involves Rossby waves and their breaking and energy deposition to form the beacon and induce chemical changes.

The decades-long interval between storms is probably related to the insolation cycle and the long radiative time constant of Saturn’s atmosphere, and several theories for temporarily storing energy have been proposed.

This chapter reviews the state of our knowledge about Saturn’s polar atmosphere that has been revealed through Earth- and space-based observation as well as theoretical and numerical modeling. In particular, the Cassini mission to Saturn, which has been in orbit around the ringed planet since 2004, has revolutionized our understanding of the planet. The current review updates a previous review by Del Genio et al. (2009), written after Cassini’s primary mission phase that ended in 2008, by focusing on the north polar region of Saturn and comparing it to the southern high latitudes. Two prominent features in the northern high latitudes are the northern hexagon and the north polar vortex; we extensively review observational and theoretical investigations to date of both features. We also review the seasonal evolution of the polar regions using the observational data accumulated during the Cassini mission since 2004 (shortly after the northern winter solstice in 2002), through the equinox in 2009, and approaching the next solstice in 2017. We conclude the current review by listing unanswered questions and describing the observations of the polar regions planned for the Grand Finale phase of the Cassini mission between 2016 and 2017.