Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
  1. Home
  2. Browse subjects
  3. Physics and Astronomy
  4. Planetary systems and astrobiology
  5. Content listing

Refine search

Refine search

Access:
Content type:
Publication date:
Apply   From and To filters
Subject: Show more
Journals Show more
Publishers: Show more
Societies Show more
Series: Show more
Collections: Show more

Actions for selected content:

Select all | Deselect all
  • View selected items
  • Export citations
  • Download PDF (zip)
  • Save to Kindle
  • Save to Dropbox
  • Save to Google Drive

Save Search

You can save your searches here and later view and run them again in "My saved searches".

Please provide a title, maximum of 40 characters.
Cancel
×

3045 results in Planetary systems and astrobiology

Page 29 of 153

  • 2 - The Chemical Composition of Mercury

  • Edited by Sean C. Solomon, Larry R. Nittler, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington DC, Brian J. Anderson
  • Book:
    Mercury
    Published online:
    10 December 2018
    Print publication:
    20 December 2018, pp 30-51

  • Summary

    The chemical composition of a planetary body reflects its starting conditions modified by numerous processes during its formation and geological evolution. Measurements by X-ray, gamma-ray, and neutron spectrometers on the MESSENGER spacecraft revealed Mercury’s surface to have surprisingly high abundances of the moderately volatile elements sodium, sulfur, potassium, and chlorine, and a low abundance of iron. This composition rules out some formation models for which high temperatures are expected to have strongly depleted volatiles and indicates that Mercury formed under conditions much more reducing than the other rocky planets of our solar system. Through geochemical modeling and petrologic experiments, the planet’s mantle and core compositions can be estimated from the surface composition and geophysical constraints. The bulk silicate composition of Mercury is likely similar to that of enstatite or metal-rich chondrite meteorites, and the planet’s unusually large core is most likely Si rich, implying that in bulk Mercury is enriched in Fe and Si (and possibly S) relative to the other inner planets. The compositional data for Mercury acquired by MESSENGER will be crucial for quantitatively testing future models of the formation of Mercury and the Solar System as a whole, as well as for constraining the geological evolution of the innermost planet.

  • 14 - Observations of Mercury’s Exosphere: Composition and Structure

  • Edited by Sean C. Solomon, Larry R. Nittler, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington DC, Brian J. Anderson
  • Book:
    Mercury
    Published online:
    10 December 2018
    Print publication:
    20 December 2018, pp 371-406

  • Summary

    Mercury is surrounded by a tenuous exosphere in which particles travel on ballistic trajectories under the influence of a combination of gravity and solar radiation pressure. The densities are so small that the surface forms the exobase, and particles in the exosphere are more likely to collide with it rather than with each other. During the three flybys of Mercury by the Mariner 10 spacecraft in 1974–1975, the probe's Ultraviolet Spectrometer made measurements of hydrogen and helium and a tentative detection of oxygen. These observations were followed a decade later by discoveries with Earth-based telescopes of exospheric sodium and potassium, and still later of calcium, aluminum, and iron. In addition to characterizing sodium, calcium, and hydrogen in Mercury’s exosphere, the Mercury Atmospheric and Surface Composition Spectrometer instrument on the MESSENGER spacecraft detected magnesium, ionized calcium, aluminum, and manganese. Thus, the total inventory of confirmed exospheric neutral species now includes H, He, Na, K, Ca, Mg, Al, Fe, and Mn. This chapter summarizes both ground-based and space-based observations of Mercury’s exosphere that have been made from its discovery by Mariner 10 through the four Earth years of nearly continuous orbital observations by the MESSENGER spacecraft.

  • 17 - Mercury’s Dynamic Magnetosphere

  • Edited by Sean C. Solomon, Larry R. Nittler, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington DC, Brian J. Anderson
  • Book:
    Mercury
    Published online:
    10 December 2018
    Print publication:
    20 December 2018, pp 461-496

  • Summary

    MESSENGER’s exploration of Mercury has led to many important discoveries and a global perspective on its magnetosphere, exosphere, and interior as a coupled system. Mercury’s proximity to the Sun, weak planetary magnetic field, electrically conducting core, and sodium-dominated exosphere give rise to a highly dynamic magnetosphere unlike that of any other planet. The strong interplanetary magnetic fields so close to the Sun result in a high rate of energy transfer from the solar wind into Mercury’s magnetosphere. Surprisingly, direct solar wind impact on the surface during coronal mass ejection impact has been found to be infrequent.  Electric currents induced in Mercury’s highly conducting interior buttress the weak planetary magnetic field against direct impact for all but the strongest solar events. Kinetic effects associated with the large orbits of planetary ions about the magnetic field and the small dimensions of the magnetosphere are observed to significantly affect some fluid instabilities such as Kelvin-Helmholtz waves along the magnetopause. As at Earth, magnetic reconnection, dipolarization fronts, and plasmoid ejection are closely associated with substorms in Mercury’s magnetosphere, and MESSENGER frequently observed energetic electrons with energies of tens of to several hundred thousand electron volts. However, no “Van Allen” radiation belts with durable trapping are present.

  • 16 - Structure and Configuration of Mercury’s Magnetosphere

  • Edited by Sean C. Solomon, Larry R. Nittler, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington DC, Brian J. Anderson
  • Book:
    Mercury
    Published online:
    10 December 2018
    Print publication:
    20 December 2018, pp 430-460

  • Summary

    Mercury is the only terrestrial planet other than Earth that possesses a global magnetic field, and the unique solar wind environment of the inner heliosphere has profound consequences for both the structure and dynamics of its magnetosphere. The first in situ observations of Mercury and its space environment made four decades ago by the Mariner 10 spacecraft revealed a magnetic field that is sufficiently strong to stand off the solar wind and form a magnetosphere. Many new insights into Mercury’s magnetosphere were enabled by data returned by the MESSENGER spacecraft. The extensive magnetic field and particle observations allowed detailed characterization of the magnetospheric structure and configuration. MESSENGER magnetic field observations definitively determined the orientation, moment, and location of the internal planetary magnetic dipole field. Furthermore, these observations established the configuration of the magnetopause, bow shock, and magnetospheric current systems. Plasma observations revealed the distribution and composition of plasma in the magnetosphere. We review the geometry and dominant physical processes of Mercury’s unique magnetosphere inferred from MESSENGER data, including the solar wind environment, the shape and location of magnetospheric boundaries, and the fundamental regions and configuration of the magnetosphere and transport and heating of plasma therein. 

  • 8 - Spectral Reflectance Constraints on the Composition and Evolution of Mercury’s Surface

  • Edited by Sean C. Solomon, Larry R. Nittler, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington DC, Brian J. Anderson
  • Book:
    Mercury
    Published online:
    10 December 2018
    Print publication:
    20 December 2018, pp 191-216

  • Summary

    MESSENGER characterized the spectral reflectance of Mercury using the Mercury Dual Imaging System wide-angle camera and the Mercury Atmospheric and Surface Composition Spectrometer. Compared with other differentiated silicate bodies, Mercury lacks the 1-µm crystal-field absorption due to ferrous iron in silicate yet is unusually low in reflectance. Spectral modeling suggests that the likely darkening phase is graphite, and surficial carbon has been confirmed with data from MESSENGER's Neutron Spectrometer. Control of reflectance by this minor opaque phase, rather than by the abundance of iron in silicates as on the Moon, prevents the correlation of spectral reflectance and major element composition as on the Moon. Variations in reflectance and color nevertheless serve as markers for the structure of the upper crust, revealing that at least 5 km of volcanic plains overlie carbon-enriched low-reflectance material. The one definitive absorption due to oxidized iron, an oxygen-metal charge transfer (OMCT) band in the ultraviolet observed in bright, pyroclastic deposits, may originate by oxidation of darkening carbon and sulfides, reducing sufficient iron to metal to unsaturate the OMCT band. The content of ferrous iron implied by the presence of this feature and the lack of a 1-µm feature is between 0.1 and 1 wt%. 

  • 9 - Impact Cratering of Mercury

  • Edited by Sean C. Solomon, Larry R. Nittler, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington DC, Brian J. Anderson
  • Book:
    Mercury
    Published online:
    10 December 2018
    Print publication:
    20 December 2018, pp 217-248

  • Summary

    Impact craters are the dominant landform on Mercury and range from the largest basins to the smallest young craters.  Peak-ring basins are especially prevalent on Mercury, although basins of all forms are far undersaturated, probably the result of the extensive volcanic emplacement of intercrater plains and younger smooth plains between about 4.1 and 3.5 Ga.  This chapter describes the geology of the two largest well-preserved basins, Caloris and Rembrandt, and the three smaller Raditladi, Rachmaninoff, and Mozart basins.  We describe analyses of crater size–frequency distributions and relate them to populations of asteroid impactors (Late Heavy Bombardment in early epochs and the near-Earth asteroid population observable today during most of Mercury’s history), to secondary cratering, and to exogenic and endogenic processes that degrade and erase craters.  Secondary cratering is more important on Mercury than on other solar system bodies and shaped much of the surface on kilometer and smaller scales, compromising our ability to use craters for relative and absolute age-dating of smaller geological units.  Failure to find “vulcanoids” and satellites of Mercury suggests that such bodies played a negligible role in cratering Mercury.  We describe an absolute cratering chronology for Mercury’s geological evolution as well as its uncertainties. 

  • 15 - Understanding Mercury’s Exosphere: Models Derived from MESSENGER Observations

  • Edited by Sean C. Solomon, Larry R. Nittler, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington DC, Brian J. Anderson
  • Book:
    Mercury
    Published online:
    10 December 2018
    Print publication:
    20 December 2018, pp 407-429

  • Summary

    Mercury is surrounded by a tenuous exosphere in which particles travel on ballistic trajectories under the influence of a combination of gravity and solar radiation pressure. The densities are so small that the surface forms the exobase, and particles in the exosphere are more likely to collide with it rather than with each other. During the three flybys of Mercury by the Mariner 10 spacecraft in 1974–1975, the probe's Ultraviolet Spectrometer made measurements of hydrogen and helium and a tentative detection of oxygen. These observations were followed a decade later by discoveries with Earth-based telescopes of exospheric sodium and potassium, and still later of calcium, aluminum, and iron. In addition to characterizing sodium, calcium, and hydrogen in Mercury’s exosphere, the Mercury Atmospheric and Surface Composition Spectrometer instrument on the MESSENGER spacecraft detected magnesium, ionized calcium, aluminum, and manganese. Thus, the total inventory of confirmed exospheric neutral species now includes H, He, Na, K, Ca, Mg, Al, Fe, and Mn. This chapter summarizes both ground-based and space-based observations of Mercury’s exosphere that have been made from its discovery by Mariner 10 through the four Earth years of nearly continuous orbital observations by the MESSENGER spacecraft.

  • 5 - Mercury’s Internal Magnetic Field

  • Edited by Sean C. Solomon, Larry R. Nittler, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington DC, Brian J. Anderson
  • Book:
    Mercury
    Published online:
    10 December 2018
    Print publication:
    20 December 2018, pp 114-143

  • Summary

    The MESSENGER mission provided a wealth of discoveries regarding Mercury’s present and past magnetic field and completed the first-order characterization of the magnetic fields of the solar system’s inner planets. MESSENGER demonstrated that Mercury is the only inner planet other than Earth to possess a global magnetic field generated by fluid motions in its liquid iron core. The field possesses some similarities to that of Earth, particularly its dipolar nature, but it is more than a factor of 100 weaker at the surface and unlike Earth’s field is highly asymmetric about the geographic equator. This structure constrains the dynamo process that generates the field and in turn the compositional and thermal structure of Mercury’s interior. Measurements made by MESSENGER less than 100 km above the planetary surface revealed signatures of crustal magnetization, at least some of which were acquired in a very ancient global magnetic field. Electric currents flow in the planet’s interior as a result of the dynamic interactions of the global magnetic field with the solar wind. These currents provide information on the radius of Mercury’s electrically conductive core, as well as the conductivity structure of the crust and mantle, which in turn reflects interior composition and temperature. 

  • 11 - The Volcanic Character of Mercury

  • Edited by Sean C. Solomon, Larry R. Nittler, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington DC, Brian J. Anderson
  • Book:
    Mercury
    Published online:
    10 December 2018
    Print publication:
    20 December 2018, pp 287-323

  • Summary

    Mercury is a volcanic world: the planet has experienced a geological history that included partial melting of the interior and the transport of magma to, and eruption onto, the surface. In this chapter, we review Mercury’s volcanic character, first in terms of effusive volcanism (as characterized by lava plains, erosional landforms, and spectral characteristics), next in regard to the planet’s explosive volcanic activity, and then from the perspective of intrusive magmatism. We also visit the planet’s ancient yet spatially expansive intercrater plains and the prospect that they, too, are volcanic. We combine the observations of and inferences for Mercury’s smooth and intercrater plains to propose a model for the planet’s crustal stratigraphy. The extent of our understanding of the petrology of surface materials on Mercury is then discussed, including compositions and lithologies, mineral assemblages, physicochemical properties, and volatile contents. We then describe in broad terms the history of effusive and explosive volcanism on the planet, before addressing the influence that the planet’s lithospheric properties and tectonic evolution have played on volcanism. We finish by listing some major outstanding questions pertaining to the volcanic character of Mercury, and we suggest how those questions might best be addressed. 

  • 17 - Mercury’s Dynamic Magnetosphere

  • Edited by Sean C. Solomon, Larry R. Nittler, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington DC, Brian J. Anderson
  • Book:
    Mercury
    Published online:
    10 December 2018
    Print publication:
    20 December 2018, pp 461-496

  • Summary

    MESSENGER’s exploration of Mercury has led to many important discoveries and a global perspective on its magnetosphere, exosphere, and interior as a coupled system. Mercury’s proximity to the Sun, weak planetary magnetic field, electrically conducting core, and sodium-dominated exosphere give rise to a highly dynamic magnetosphere unlike that of any other planet. The strong interplanetary magnetic fields so close to the Sun result in a high rate of energy transfer from the solar wind into Mercury’s magnetosphere. Surprisingly, direct solar wind impact on the surface during coronal mass ejection impact has been found to be infrequent.  Electric currents induced in Mercury’s highly conducting interior buttress the weak planetary magnetic field against direct impact for all but the strongest solar events. Kinetic effects associated with the large orbits of planetary ions about the magnetic field and the small dimensions of the magnetosphere are observed to significantly affect some fluid instabilities such as Kelvin-Helmholtz waves along the magnetopause. As at Earth, magnetic reconnection, dipolarization fronts, and plasmoid ejection are closely associated with substorms in Mercury’s magnetosphere, and MESSENGER frequently observed energetic electrons with energies of tens of to several hundred thousand electron volts. However, no “Van Allen” radiation belts with durable trapping are present.

  • 5 - Mercury’s Internal Magnetic Field

  • Edited by Sean C. Solomon, Larry R. Nittler, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington DC, Brian J. Anderson
  • Book:
    Mercury
    Published online:
    10 December 2018
    Print publication:
    20 December 2018, pp 114-143

  • Summary

    The MESSENGER mission provided a wealth of discoveries regarding Mercury’s present and past magnetic field and completed the first-order characterization of the magnetic fields of the solar system’s inner planets. MESSENGER demonstrated that Mercury is the only inner planet other than Earth to possess a global magnetic field generated by fluid motions in its liquid iron core. The field possesses some similarities to that of Earth, particularly its dipolar nature, but it is more than a factor of 100 weaker at the surface and unlike Earth’s field is highly asymmetric about the geographic equator. This structure constrains the dynamo process that generates the field and in turn the compositional and thermal structure of Mercury’s interior. Measurements made by MESSENGER less than 100 km above the planetary surface revealed signatures of crustal magnetization, at least some of which were acquired in a very ancient global magnetic field. Electric currents flow in the planet’s interior as a result of the dynamic interactions of the global magnetic field with the solar wind. These currents provide information on the radius of Mercury’s electrically conductive core, as well as the conductivity structure of the crust and mantle, which in turn reflects interior composition and temperature. 

  • 10 - The Tectonic Character of Mercury

  • Edited by Sean C. Solomon, Larry R. Nittler, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington DC, Brian J. Anderson
  • Book:
    Mercury
    Published online:
    10 December 2018
    Print publication:
    20 December 2018, pp 249-286

  • Summary

    Mercury is a tectonic world: the planet has experienced a long and complicated history of deformation, recorded by its preserved tectonic landforms. As the study of tectonics naturally intersects with volcanology, chemistry, interior structure, and thermal evolution, understanding the tectonic character of Mercury is a crucial means by which to more fully comprehend the planet’s geological history. In this chapter, we seek to tie together the various strands of observational and analytical studies of the tectonics of Mercury conducted since the first Mercury flyby of the MESSENGER mission. We describe the shortening and extensional structures on the innermost planet, as well as an enigmatic set of long-wavelength topographic warps that may have been tectonically driven, before reviewing our understanding of the structure and properties of Mercury's lithosphere. The mechanisms for tectonic deformation are next discussed, and we then explore the other major aspect of Mercury's tectonics – when deformation took place – as we work to describe at least in broad terms the tectonic history of the planet. The influence of tectonics on Mercury's volcanic activity is then addressed. Finally, we list some major questions regarding Mercury’s tectonics that remain open and suggest how they might yet be answered. 

  • 7 - The Geochemical and Mineralogical Diversity of Mercury

  • Edited by Sean C. Solomon, Larry R. Nittler, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington DC, Brian J. Anderson
  • Book:
    Mercury
    Published online:
    10 December 2018
    Print publication:
    20 December 2018, pp 176-190

  • Summary

    Geochemical measurements from the MESSENGER mission indicate distinct geochemical terranes on the surface of Mercury. We report chemical compositions and derived mineralogy for four geochemical terranes, as well as Mercury’s average surface composition. The geochemical terranes share higher Mg and S, and lower Al, Ca, and Fe, than terrestrial oceanic basalts. The low Fe and high S concentrations suggest that all terranes formed under highly reducing conditions. All terranes are enriched in plagioclase. Heating melted the silicate shell of Mercury and produced a global magma ocean in which stratification developed during crystallization, with basal ultramafic material grading to incompatible-element-enriched material near the surface. Later differentiation began with partial melting as result of mantle convection and heating from the decay of radioactive elements. These high-Mg, high-temperature partial melts were exceptionally fluid and produced thin, laterally extensive flows. The largest impacts excavated into the upper layers of the mantle and deposited distinctive material, including remnants of a graphite-rich flotation crust from the magma ocean, at the top of the crust. Smooth plains deposits originated as laterally extensive flood basalts that efficiently covered pre-existing layers. Distinct source compositions suggest that convection was insufficient to homogenize the mantle at ~3.8–3.9 Ga.

  • 2 - The Chemical Composition of Mercury

  • Edited by Sean C. Solomon, Larry R. Nittler, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington DC, Brian J. Anderson
  • Book:
    Mercury
    Published online:
    10 December 2018
    Print publication:
    20 December 2018, pp 30-51

  • Summary

    The chemical composition of a planetary body reflects its starting conditions modified by numerous processes during its formation and geological evolution. Measurements by X-ray, gamma-ray, and neutron spectrometers on the MESSENGER spacecraft revealed Mercury’s surface to have surprisingly high abundances of the moderately volatile elements sodium, sulfur, potassium, and chlorine, and a low abundance of iron. This composition rules out some formation models for which high temperatures are expected to have strongly depleted volatiles and indicates that Mercury formed under conditions much more reducing than the other rocky planets of our solar system. Through geochemical modeling and petrologic experiments, the planet’s mantle and core compositions can be estimated from the surface composition and geophysical constraints. The bulk silicate composition of Mercury is likely similar to that of enstatite or metal-rich chondrite meteorites, and the planet’s unusually large core is most likely Si rich, implying that in bulk Mercury is enriched in Fe and Si (and possibly S) relative to the other inner planets. The compositional data for Mercury acquired by MESSENGER will be crucial for quantitatively testing future models of the formation of Mercury and the Solar System as a whole, as well as for constraining the geological evolution of the innermost planet.

  • 18 - The Elusive Origin of Mercury

  • Edited by Sean C. Solomon, Larry R. Nittler, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington DC, Brian J. Anderson
  • Book:
    Mercury
    Published online:
    10 December 2018
    Print publication:
    20 December 2018, pp 497-515

  • Summary

    An objective of the MESSENGER mission was to learn the physical processes that determined Mercury’s high bulk ratio of metal to silicate. In the course of addressing that objective, the mission discovered multiple anomalous characteristics about the innermost planet. The lack of FeO and the reduced oxidation state of Mercury’s silicate crust and mantle are more extreme than nearly all other known materials in the solar system. In contrast, moderately volatile elements are present in abundances comparable to or greater than those of the other terrestrial planets. No single process during Mercury’s formation is able to account for all of these observations. Here, we review the current ideas for the origin of Mercury’s distinctive characteristics. Gaps in understanding the innermost regions of the early solar nebula limit the testing of different hypotheses. Even so, all proposed models are incomplete and need further development in order to unravel Mercury’s remaining secrets. 

  • 20 - Future Missions: Mercury after MESSENGER

  • Edited by Sean C. Solomon, Larry R. Nittler, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington DC, Brian J. Anderson
  • Book:
    Mercury
    Published online:
    10 December 2018
    Print publication:
    20 December 2018, pp 544-569

  • Summary

    Missions to Mercury are challenging because of the planet’s proximity to the Sun, as close as one-third the mean Earth–Sun distance. This location imparts a stressing thermal environment because of intense solar illumination, as well as major propulsion requirements because of the energy gained by a spacecraft descending from Earth into the Sun’s gravity well. Although Mercury has been a primary exploration target since the 1960s, it was not until the discovery of gravity-assist trajectories to Mercury that robotic exploration became feasible. The Mariner 10 flybys in the 1970s revealed many of Mercury's characteristics and whetted the appetite of the science community for an orbiter mission. Enabled by multiple planetary gravity assists and innovations in spacecraft and instrumentation, MESSENGER successfully orbited Mercury from 2011 into 2015 and revolutionized our understanding of the planet. New questions raised by the MESSENGER results motivate the much larger, dual-spacecraft BepiColombo mission, scheduled to arrive at Mercury in late 2025. Even after BepiColombo, many key questions central to understanding Mercury’s formation will likely require a Mercury lander mission, potentially enabled by sufficiently large launch vehicles. The return of samples from Mercury to Earth may long remain an aspiration for future generations of scientists and engineers. 

Page 29 of 153