It is natural to see in the Republic’s concern with self-mastery a Platonic account of autonomy. But Plato’s understanding of self-rule in the Republic has more to do with cognition, and rather less to do with independent agency. Indeed, in the ethically motivated epistemology of the Republic, it is aiming at ideal knowledge that transforms one ethically and engenders many of the features centrally associated with the notion of ‘autonomy’. Being able to explain reality independently makes one independent of the illusions and confusions caused by pleasure, pains, and public pressures, and even restructures the desires, pleasures and other affects liable to arise. Moreover, the ability to give accounts is what makes us accountable to one another for our cognitive condition — and for the judgements, feelings and actions based on this.

This chapter explores late antique wall painting, with special emphasis on its stylistic transformation, evolving iconography and the challenges of preservation and interpretation. It traces the shift from illusionistic Roman painting to the more abstract, linear styles that characterised Late Antiquity. A central argument is that late antique wall painting represents not a decline in artistic quality but rather an adaptive response to new cultural, religious and spatial demands. The chapter examines the rise of Liniendekoration (linear decoration), a geometric style that became dominant in funerary contexts, particularly in Roman catacombs, Egyptian monasteries and Mediterranean hypogea. It also explores the coexistence of early Christian imagery with traditional pagan motifs, emphasising continuity rather than abrupt change. In analysing these shifts, the chapter highlights how late antique painters simplified classical techniques in response to changing workshop practices, economic factors and environmental constraints. It also addresses key methodological challenges, including dating wall paintings, identifying regional styles and assessing the influence of early Christian and Jewish artistic traditions. This study stresses the crucial role of wall painting in Late Antiquity as a medium for shaping religious and social identities, demonstrating its artistic innovation and cultural significance.

This chapter discusses the development of Jewish synagogue architecture in Late Antiquity, tracing its evolution from the early centuries to the more monumental structures of the fourth to sixth centuries. Drawing on a range of sources, it explores how synagogue architecture varied across regions, reflecting local styles, communal preferences and interactions with surrounding Christian and pagan cultures. While early synagogues primarily functioned as spaces for Torah readings, later structures became more elaborate, incorporating decorative elements such as Jewish symbols (e.g. the menorah, Torah shrine and ritual objects) and even figural representations – challenging traditional assumptions about aniconism in Judaism. The chapter also addresses debates over synagogue chronology, arguing that established typologies, such as Galilean-type and Byzantine-type synagogues, require re-evaluation in the light of recent archaeological discoveries. It emphasises that synagogue architecture was shaped not only by religious traditions but also by broader social and political factors. The presence of monumental synagogues in Late Antiquity suggests that Jewish communities remained active and resilient even under Christian rule.

This chapter focuses on the transformation of rural landscapes in the western Roman Empire during Late Antiquity, analysing shifts in settlement patterns, economic structures and agrarian practices. It highlights the increasing availability of archaeological data over the past two decades, which has reinforced the idea that rural experiences during this period varied significantly across regions. Rather than a uniform decline, the countryside exhibited multiple trajectories, including contraction, reorganisation and, in some cases, expansion. A major theme is the decline of the villa system and the parallel emergence or resurgence of upland settlements and forested regions as integral components of rural economies. This study argues that these changes were not simply responses to political fragmentation but reflected broader socio-economic transformations, including shifts in land ownership, subsistence strategies and local production systems. It also examines the interplay between long-distance trade and localised economies, challenging the notion that rural economies collapsed entirely after the fall of Rome. The chapter further critiques traditional narratives that frame rural change through the binary lens of ‘continuity versus decline’. Instead, it advocates for a more nuanced approach that recognises both persistence and adaptation in late antique countryside economies.

I conclude the book by discussing how later historians used Roman law to imagine legal orders that were more appealing than their own conditions. I use two examples: Bracton, whose treatise on English law used Roman concepts to aggrandize jurists like himself within the legal system of the thirteenth century, and Fritz Schulz, a refugee from Nazi Germany whose writings imagined a Roman rule of law as an implicit counterpoint to the totalitarianism he had fled. I finally argue that this rhetorical feature of Roman law is not unique to the Roman context, but instead reflects a broader aspirational tendency in legal writing and historiography.

This chapter explores the role of metalwork in Late Antiquity, with particular focus on the production, distribution and significance of gold, silver, copper, iron, lead and tin artefacts. It examines metal extraction processes, manufacturing techniques and the various ways in which metal objects were used in both secular and religious contexts. Drawing on archaeological evidence, chemical analysis and written sources, the chapter highlights how the study of metalwork provides valuable insights into the economic structures and political landscape of the late antique period. Rather than reflecting decline, late antique metalwork demonstrates adaptation to new demands. Gold and silver, used for coinage, jewellery and ceremonial objects, continued to be produced in both state-run and private workshops, with Constantinople, Antioch and Alexandria emerging as key centres. Silver plate played an essential role in imperial gift-giving and church donations, while stamped silver objects indicate a sophisticated state-controlled production system. The chapter also examines the continued production of copper alloys and iron, which were essential for military equipment, everyday utensils and monumental architecture, as well as lead and tin, which were widely used in construction, plumbing and pilgrimage objects.

This chapter explores the history and archaeology of Antioch in Late Antiquity, analysing the city’s evolution from its Seleucid foundation to its prominence as a Roman, Byzantine and early Islamic centre. A key argument is that Antioch’s transformation was a story not of decline but of adaptation, shaped by political shifts, natural disasters and evolving architectural traditions. This study highlights the challenges faced by early excavations, particularly the Princeton University-led campaign in the 1930s, which struggled with sedimentation, modern urban encroachment and a focus on decorative mosaics rather than structural remains. Despite these setbacks, that project yielded significant insights into Antioch’s topography, including the layout of its colonnaded streets, fora and fortifications. The chapter also examines the role of imperial patronage in reshaping the city, with figures like Constantine, Theodosius and Justinian commissioning extensive rebuilding efforts, including churches, palaces and defensive walls. While earthquakes, Persian invasions and environmental challenges altered the urban fabric, Antioch retained its status as a major intellectual, religious and economic hub well into the early Islamic period.

This chapter discusses the role of law in the representational program of the emperor Augustus. First I consider a poem by Horace, in which Horace argues with the jurist Trebatius Testa about his potential liability for defamation, before claiming that the new emperor will protect him from legal judgments. I suggest that Horace casts Augustan order as superseding legal rules, but that he offers a language for imagining imperial judgment as better, or fairer, than law. I next discuss a coin that commemorates Augustus restoring leges et iura to the Roman people, and argue that this coin should be read in connection with an edict recorded in Cassius Dio that voided all illegal actions taken during the triumviral period. I then discuss the story of Vedius Pollio, an enslaver whose plan to feed a slave to lampreys was foiled by Augustus, and show how this story can be read as a justificatory folktale for imperial control over enslavement practice and for expanding imperial jurisidiction more broadly. I finally discuss the interplay between Augustus’ marriage legislation, with its extreme penalties for adultery, and his own punishment of his adulterous daughter Julia.