In this chapter, I argue that a comprehensive picture of Platonic autonomy must be balanced by attention to mutual interdependence and the ways that ideas arise through interpersonal dialogue. Philosophical ideas arise in a social context, and to this degree, even ideas that are now ‘my own’ have come to be mine in part through the reasoning of other persons. Moreover, as a result of human fallibility, even the fully developed Platonic philosopher still requires conversational partners to both learn and to test out ideas. Rather than overvaluing self-sufficiency, a philosophical life includes being open to challenges to one’s ideas, tolerating a state of not knowing fully, and learning that one needs others due to the limits of individual reasoners.

This chapter explores ivory production and craftsmanship in Late Antiquity, examining its material properties, artistic significance and sociopolitical functions to trace the evolution of ivory carving from the fourth to the sixth century. From a technical perspective, the chapter argues that late antique ivory carving was not a rupture from earlier traditions but rather a continuation with distinctive adaptations. In terms of provenance, it highlights the importance of elephant ivory, particularly from North and East Africa, prized for its durability and aesthetic appeal. Ivory was widely used in diplomatic gifts, religious artefacts and luxury objects, including consular diptychs, book covers, furniture inlays and pyxides. The discussion also addresses the role of ivory in elite gift-giving and political symbolism, emphasising how consular diptychs functioned as commemorative objects that reinforced civic and imperial identity. Additionally, the chapter examines economic and geopolitical disruptions, particularly the Byzantine–Sasanian wars and the rise of Islam, which altered ivory trade routes and contributed to the decline of large-scale production. Despite these challenges, this study documents how ivory carving remained a vital artistic tradition, reflecting the adaptability of late antique artisans and the evolving cultural landscape of the period.

This chapter examines pottery in Late Antiquity, with a particular focus on chronology and the economic and social significance of pottery across the Mediterranean. It analyses various categories of ceramics, including fine wares, coarse wares, amphorae and lamps, using typological classification, archaeometry and distribution patterns to trace their evolution from the third to the seventh century. At the heart of the discussion is the argument that late antique pottery serves as a key indicator of economic and cultural continuity rather than decline. The study highlights the dominance of African Red Slip Ware (ARS) in the Western Mediterranean, charting its peak production and widespread distribution from the late third to the seventh century. It also explores how ARS workshops in Carthage and Byzacena continued to innovate, introducing new forms and Christian motifs to adapt to changing political landscapes. Expanding on regional variations, the chapter also examines how eastern Mediterranean fine wares experienced a later resurgence, with Cypriot and Phocaean Red Slip Wares becoming more prominent in the fifth and sixth centuries. By demonstrating how amphora production patterns reflect shifts in trade networks and agricultural production, particularly in the transport of wine, oil and fish products, the chapter documents the vital role of pottery in understanding economic and social transformations in Late Antiquity.

This chapter explores dress and furnishing textiles in Late Antiquity, examining their materials, production techniques and cultural significance in both everyday and elite settings. It argues that textile production was a major sector of the late Roman economy, with fabrics sourced from across the empire and beyond, including silk from the East and high-quality linen from Egypt. This study also investigates how political and social changes influenced fashion, with garments reflecting shifts in identity, status and religious affiliation. A major challenge in studying textiles from this period is the fragmentary nature of surviving garments and the difficulty of matching literary descriptions to actual finds, a concern the chapter addresses in detail. A significant focus is placed on the emergence of Christian liturgical dress, tracing how bishops and clergy gradually adopted distinct garments, such as the dalmatica and pallium, to signal their ecclesiastical roles. The discussion concludes with an examination of furnishing textiles, including wall hangings and upholstery, which played a crucial role in interior decoration. By integrating diverse sources, the chapter demonstrates that textiles were not only practical necessities but also important cultural and economic markers in Late Antiquity.

This chapter explores the economy of the later Roman Empire, with special emphasis on resource management, economic structures and regional variations. It highlights how land, labour and capital functioned within a largely agrarian system, with agriculture serving as the primary economic driver and tax base. The chapter examines diverse sources, including archaeological surveys, historical texts, coinage and environmental data. It analyses the effects of political instability, regional differentiation and resource distribution on economic trends. Case studies from North Gaul, Iberia, Italy and the Eastern Mediterranean reveal that economic activity was influenced by both local conditions and imperial policies. The study also incorporates ecological data, such as pollen analysis and lead pollution levels, to assess economic fluctuations. A central argument is that the later Roman economy was not a uniform system but a collection of interconnected regional economies. While political fragmentation led to economic contractions in some areas, others adapted through local specialisation and changing trade networks. This study thus challenges the view of economic collapse, instead emphasising resilience and adaptation, and calling for an interdisciplinary approach to better understand the complexities of late Roman economic life and its long-term transformations.

This chapter examines the urban evolution of cities in the Eastern Mediterranean during Late Antiquity, focusing on their transformation from classical urban centres to more utilitarian and fortified settlements. It argues that rather than experiencing outright decline, cities in the East adapted to changing political, economic and religious realities. Archaeological evidence demonstrates a marked shift from monumental civic spaces to structures that emphasised military defence, religious identity and practical urban needs. The author discusses key aspects of urban change, including the gradual abandonment of traditional agoras, the decline of monumental temples and the repurposing of public buildings for Christian churches and administrative centres. The chapter also explores the impact of imperial policies on urban planning in reshaping cityscapes through large-scale church construction, fortification efforts and infrastructure projects. The increased militarisation of cities, with the establishment of fortified kastra and urban defences, is another major theme. Regional variations are examined, showing that while some cities, such as Constantinople and Thessaloniki, thrived under imperial patronage, others faced economic stagnation and contraction. The chapter concludes that while Late Antiquity brought profound transformations to urban life, cities in the East remained resilient, adapting to new social and political realities rather than simply collapsing.

This chapter examines the urban evolution of Trier in Late Antiquity, focusing on its transformation from a Roman provincial centre to an imperial capital. It discusses the city’s development from its foundation as Augusta Treverorum in the first century BCE to its peak as a key administrative and military hub in the late third and fourth centuries. This contribution integrates archaeological evidence, historical texts and urban-planning analysis, highlighting how Trier’s strategic location along the Moselle River contributed to its economic and political rise. The chapter also considers major infrastructure projects, including the construction of city walls, bridges, baths, an amphitheatre and a palace complex, demonstrating how imperial patronage shaped the city’s expansion. A significant theme is Trier’s role as an imperial residence under Constantine and his successors, with the city becoming a centre for coin production, governance and military strategy. The Christianisation of Trier is another focus, detailing the construction of basilicas, episcopal complexes and martyr shrines, which established it as an important religious centre. Despite political upheavals and invasions, Trier remained influential into the early medieval period, with the chapter concluding that its evolution reflects broader patterns of imperial consolidation, economic resilience and religious transformation in Late Antiquity.

This chapter examines the transformation of Jerusalem in Late Antiquity, focusing on its urban development, religious significance and shifting political landscape. It traces the city’s evolution from Roman Aelia Capitolina into a major Christian centre under Byzantine rule, emphasising the role of imperial patronage in reshaping its architecture and sacred spaces. Particular attention is given to the construction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, initiated by Constantine and consecrated in 335. This church became the focal point of Christian Jerusalem, inspiring the development of additional religious structures, including churches on Mount Zion, on the Mount of Olives and in Bethlehem. The chapter also explores the city’s expansion under Empress Eudocia and Emperor Justinian, discussing projects such as the Nea Church and the extension of the cardo. Further discussions examine the adaptation of existing Roman infrastructure, the conversion of pagan temples into Christian buildings, and the impact of imperial policies on the city’s layout. The chapter concludes by assessing the Persian conquest in 614 CE and the subsequent Islamic takeover in 638 CE, demonstrating how Jerusalem remained a contested and sacred space throughout Late Antiquity.