Transistor Biasing

When transistors are used as switches, they operate either in cut off or in saturation mode. Whereas, when transistors are used to amplify small signals, a quiescent operating point is selected somewhere in the middle of the conduction range. The region of the location of a quiescent point depends on the kind of amplifier. For example, an amplifier may be used for maximum voltage and/or current gain, or high input resistance, or power gain. In some applications, an amplifier ought to consume minimum power, especially when it is used with a battery-operated device. After selecting the quiescent operating point, it is also required that it remains stable. If there is some change in the operating temperature or variation in supply voltage, the operating point may change its location. Variations due to the manufacturing tolerance in component values and in transistor parameters also affect the quiescent point. Irrespective of the reason, it is required that the quiescent point should remain located within specified limits.

Three amplifier configurations are commonly used while employing either BJT or FET amplification. The configuration depends on the terminals, out of the three, that is common to the input and the output of the amplifier. These configurations are studied on the basis of their characteristics, such as voltage gain, current gain, input and output resistance, and bandwidth, i.e., the frequency range within which the amplifier operates without any significant reduction in the output waveform. The operating frequency range becomes limited as the voltage gain drops at low and high operating frequencies. Hence, the study of frequency response becomes important.

Key Concepts

• • Phenomenon of global warming and its connection with industrialization

• • Concerns and threats of global warming and climate change

• • Impact of carbon emissions on global warming

• • Initiatives towards reduction of carbon emissions and preventing global warming

• • Concepts of Earth Overshoot Day, sustainable development and net-zero emissions

• • United Nations’ sustainable development goals.

• • Link between energy demand and global warming

• • How to decarbonize the energy system

Introduction

Sustainable development, in recent years, has emerged as one of the most talked-about concepts. What does this term mean, and why has it become so important? The Industrial Revolution, which gained momentum in the 19th century, was a landmark event. It represented the culmination of human efforts of thousands of years. The revolution led to great inventions, making life better and easier. The human efforts involved in day-to-day activities have decreased continuously, and automation has resulted in increased human comfort. All sectors of our life, be it agriculture, transport, and even daily routine work at our homes, have been made easier by this revolution. But these developments have extracted a significant cost, particularly on the environment.

The effect of industrial activities on the environment has been described in a poignant way by @SDGoals. It shows that if we scale down the age of the earth from its actual value of 4.6 billion years to 46 years, then on the same scale human life has been on the earth for about 4 hours only. The Industrial Revolution, on this scale, began only a minute ago, and in that time, we have destroyed more than half of the world's forests.

Key Concepts

• • Importance of energy sector in decarbonization

• • Energy-related SDGs

• • Goal 7: Targets, indicators, progress

• • Goal 11: Targets, indicators, progress

• • Goal 13: Targets, indicators, progress

Introduction

The UN, realizing the importance of preventing damage to the climate and warming of the planet, started working in this area more than 50 years ago. But the real transformation has come after the Paris Agreement and the adoption of SDGs. The climate change challenge was largely absent from the agenda of the countries and considerations in policy formulation in even the most advanced countries in the world. Growing evidence of the threat of global warming led to a change in the approach, with a radical change seen after the declaration of the Paris Agreement and the 17 SDGs.

The most important component of the increased concern over climate change is related to energy. Energy is the dominant contributor to climate change, accounting for a minimum around 60% of total global greenhouse gas emissions, and in fact some studies have shown this share to be more than 70%. All the related key terms in vogue these days, such as ‘low-carbon system’, ‘decarbonization’, ‘net-zero system’, and ‘carbon-neutral system’, have energy at the centre. Irrespective of the solutions adopted and the timelines set by different countries, it is agreed upon by all concerned that transition to a low-carbon climate cannot be achieved without decarbonizing the energy systems.

Key Concepts

• • Steps involved for developing sustainable organizations

• • Case study on a university campus

• • Integration of green sources of energy

• • Implementation of energy efficiency measures

• • Ensuring participation of stakeholders for energy conservation

Introduction

The achievement of SDGs defined under the Paris Agreement requires concerted efforts at the international, national, state, organization, and individual levels. The organizations which follow the principles of sustainable development can serve as a role model for others to follow.

Colleges for higher education and the universities also have an important role to play in achieving the SDGs in general and in the adoption and promotion of green sources of electricity in particular. Goal 4 of SDGs, although, is specific to the availability of quality education to all, but these institutions can play a much broader role in realizing the wide-ranging SDGs. For example, Goal 9: Industry, infrastructure and innovation; Goal 12: Responsible production and consumption; and Goal 13: Climate Action cannot possibly be achieved without the mindful and positive influence of higher education institutions.

More importantly, these institutes need to work on the creation of awareness about the need for sustainable development and SDGs, a crucial requirement for their achievement. The institutes should also make sustainable development an integral part of their future plans. Green and renewable sources of energy like solar PV should be adopted for existing buildings, and these should be made mandatory for the new buildings. The academic institutes, more importantly, should practice on their campuses what they are preaching in the class.

Key Concepts

• " Working of solar PV power plants and their benefits

• " Different configurations of solar PV systems, such as grid-connected, stand-alone, and hybrid solar PV plants

• " Metering mechanisms, such as net metring and gross metring

• " Working and classification of different types of inverters used in solar energy generation

• " Different performance evaluation parameters for solar PV power plants and effect of environmental conditions

• " Components used in solar PV power plants

• " Challenges related to the large-scale integration of solar PV plants with the power grid

Introduction

Solar energy is a renewable source of energy, and when electricity is produced from solar, it does not lead to any CO2 emissions. Apart from being a green and renewable source of energy, solar is the simplest system of electricity generation. As described by Professor Martin Green, ‘The whole photovoltaic technology itself is a bit magical. Sunlight just falls on this inert material and you get electricity straight out of it.’ This technology has emerged as the most powerful solution for decarbonizing the energy system.

The solar PV plants can be installed in two modes: grid-connected and off-grid system. At present, grid-connected solar PV (GCSPV) plants are the most commonly used systems. Although solar PV cells, were discovered in the year 1953, solar PV plants for generating electricity did not gain widespread acceptance primarily because of the panel cost as well as the issues with the batteries involved. GCSPV technology has removed the weak link, the battery from the system, making it an efficient, economical, and durable system with minimum maintenance requirements. These benefits have made the solar PV the fastest rising system in the world.

Introduction

A current mirror is a transistor-based circuit that the current level is controlled in an adjacent transistor, and the adjacent transistor essentially acts as a current source. Such circuits are now considered a commonly used building block in a number of analog integrated circuits (IC). Operational amplifiers, operational transconductance amplifiers, and biasing networks are examples of such circuits that essentially use current mirrors. Analog IC implementation techniques such as current-mode and switched-current circuits use current mirrors as basic circuit elements.

A significant advantage associated with the current mirrors is that they act as a near-ideal current source while fabricated using transistors and can replace large-value passive resistances in analog circuits, saving large chip area.

The later part of the chapter discusses another important analog circuit, namely, differential amplifier. As the name suggests, differential amplifiers amplify the difference between two signals that are applied to their two inputs. In addition to the differential amplification, it is also required that differential amplifiers suppress unwanted signal, which is present on the two input signals in the form of a common-mode signal. A differential amplifier is a particularly very useful and essential part of operational amplifiers. A differential pair is the basic building block of a differential amplifier that comprises of two transistors in a special form of connection.

Chapter 5 examines the trade-offs of corporate governing from both corporate and societal perspectives. Internally, it can enhance recruitment, morale, branding, and profitability – but also risks alienating stakeholders with conflicting political views. Externally, while corporate governing may offset political gridlock and support social change, it raises concerns about accountability, uneven influence, and democratic legitimacy. Companies may disengage, act opportunistically, or adopt positions that run counter to broader public goals. This chapter identifies two core challenges. First, corporate governing often falls short in advancing genuine social progress where business interests diverge from public needs – such as labor rights, antitrust, taxation, privacy, corporate and financial reform, and AI – underscoring the risks of stakeholderist reforms that expand executive discretion. Second, it may erode democratic processes by sidelining dissent and shifting policymaking into private hands. While the first concern may be mitigated by greater transparency, the second is more difficult. As public authority recedes, participatory democracy risks being displaced by corporate decision-making.

Chapter 5 examines the trade-offs of c1orporate governing from both corporate and societal perspectives. Internally, it can enhance recruitment, morale, branding, and profitability – but also risks alienating stakeholders with conflicting political views. Externally, while corporate governing may offset political gridlock and support social change, it raises concerns about accountability, uneven influence, and democratic legitimacy. Companies may disengage, act opportunistically, or adopt positions that run counter to broader public goals. This chapter identifies two core challenges. First, corporate governing often falls short in advancing genuine social progress where business interests diverge from public needs – such as labor rights, antitrust, taxation, privacy, corporate and financial reform, and AI – underscoring the risks of stakeholderist reforms that expand executive discretion. Second, it may erode democratic processes by sidelining dissent and shifting policymaking into private hands. While the first concern may be mitigated by greater transparency, the second is more difficult. As public authority recedes, participatory democracy risks being displaced by corporate decision-making.

Chapter 2 explores the drivers behind corporate governing, spanning internal organizational dynamics, and broader societal pressures. Within firms, Millennial and Gen Z employees have emerged as a force for change, leveraging social media to advocate for prosocial commitments and ESG priorities. Investors, increasingly treating ESG factors as financially material, have further reshaped strategic expectations. These pressures have begun to challenge shareholder primacy and expand the perceived boundaries of corporate purpose. This chapter also considers the influence of corporate political spending and lobbying in shaping public positioning. In Section B, attention turns to the cultural and political shifts of the mid-to-late 2010s. Movements like Black Lives Matter, #MeToo, the Climate Movement, and March for Our Lives heightened demands for corporate engagement, as did high-profile federal policies under the first Trump administration. Faced with polarization, institutional dysfunction, and declining government responsiveness, many companies stepped into policy vacuums – assuming roles once thought to belong solely to public institutions.

In Corporate Power and the Politics of Change, Matteo Gatti examines how corporations have taken on roles traditionally reserved for governments – advocating on social issues, setting internal norms, and stepping in where public institutions fall short. This phenomenon, called corporate governing, takes two forms: socioeconomic advocacy, when companies take public stances, and government substitution, when they deliver services or protections the state does not provide. Drawing on legal doctrine and insights from the social sciences, Gatti shows how this shift reflects broader pressures within firms and deep dysfunction outside them. The rise of corporate governing has also triggered political, legal, and cultural backlash that challenges its legitimacy and reach. Clear-eyed and timely, this book offers a framework for understanding how corporate power reshapes policymaking and what that means for business and democracy.

Corporate Power and the Politics of Change introduces the concept of “corporate governing” – the rising tendency of corporations to intervene in public life. It distinguishes between two core forms: corporate socioeconomic advocacy, where firms take public stances on contested issues, and government substitution, where they perform quasi-public functions in the face of political inaction. Through examples like Nike’s Kaepernick campaign, Disney’s clash with Florida over LGBTQ+ rights, Apple’s racial equity efforts, and Meta’s retreat, the Introduction shows how corporations increasingly shape public discourse and deliver policy-like outcomes. This expanding role has triggered backlash, raising concerns about democratic legitimacy, political polarization, and executive overreach. This chapter identifies the core legal and normative questions driving the inquiry, surveys the relevant literature, and presents the analytical framework that structures the book – providing a detailed roadmap for the chapters that follow.