The motion of plates is called plate kinematics. It can be relative or absolute, and both are explained in this chapter. Surface movements can be measured from space, and the results show that active deformation, volcanism and seismicity are focused along plate boundaries. This chapter emphasizes that the Earth‘s inner seismic structure confirms that the mantle is dynamic and in constant motion. Convective mantle flow has been suggested for a century and are a major field of research because of its indirect association with plate motions. Plumes represent more localized columns of upward moving hot mantle that generate crustal magmatism and volcanoes. They work together like a big internal machinery with implications for many geologic, geophysical and biologic processes. This chapter summarizes plate tectonics and the deeper plume and hotspot processes, and how it is possible to constrain and reconstruct plate motion into the past and, to some extent, also into the future.

In Chapter 10, we discuss problem solving and decision making in groups. We explore some of the advantages and disadvantages of problem solving and decision making in groups. We discuss the factors that promote and discourage groupthink. We discuss basic problem solving using a variety of different approaches including the Rational Problem-Solving Process, the Pareto system, Nominal Group Technique, and several others.

This chapter introduces readers to the processes underlying language ontact and how these relate to both personal and group multilingualism. Concepts such as superstratal, adstratal and substratal directions of contact are considered, as are the levels of influence put forward by Thomason and the integration process put forward by Winford. Interpretations of borrowing and interference are aired. A case study of Estonian Halbdeutsch is used to exemplify and test many of these ideas.

Education continues to primarily focus on educator-directed traditional transactions of pre-determined knowledge and skills not necessarily equally accessible or transformational for all learners (Smith, 2018). In contrast, deeper learning required for transformation requires pedagogies that facilitate contextualised understandings of shared meanings. Optimal transformational learning requires thoughtful development of the self as an educator, deliberate planning of safe learning environments and pedagogical practice that enables critical thinking. A pedagogy of hospitality provides a relational and safe space, but also an intentionally welcoming and critical learning space that holistically nurtures learners. Pohl (1999) identifies that hospitality is not charity but shared humanity as pedagogy; hospitality is a form of justice that facilitates meaningful learning.

Five key outcomes of pedagogy as hospitality are discussed in this chapter: love; formation and transformation; intentional nurture; critical empowerment; and hope and justice.

The central idea of this chapter is koineisation, the process by which discrete varieties tend to form into a new compromise variety when speakers of these varieties find themelves living side by side. Dialect levelling and new dialect formation are central forces in the process. The case study considers what happens when closely related but discrete language varieties come together in new circumstances. Primary focus is given to contact between Scandinavian varieties and Low German in the late medieval and early modern periods and between Old English and Viking Norse in northern England in the early medieval period.

This introduction sets the scene by exploring the richness of the diversity of learners and critically examines the imperative for educators within the current educational climate to employ pedagogies that transform learning experiences, particularly for those who continue to be marginalised and are increasingly disengaged from education. The aim of the introduction is to lay the foundation for the significance of supporting educators in pedagogical decisions that prioritise and are socially just and responsive to the inclusion of all learners, thereby engaging and empowering learners as active co-designers and self-regulators of respectful, meaningful and impactful learning. In scaffolding educator efficacy, the introduction encourages self-reflective strategies for sustained critique of applying inclusive, responsive, enabling and socially just pedagogical approaches within their educational practice.

This chapter describes how rifting may lead to continental break-up and the formation of a new ocean bound by passive continental margins. Passive continental margins define the transition from continental crust of normal thickness to oceanic crust. They are results of continental rifting that has caused the crust to break and give space to a new ocean. The break-up splits the rift into two, often unequal, parts that become tectonically inactive (passive) as the ocean starts to spread and widen. It is shown how some passive margins are magmatic with large amounts of volcanic activity, while other margins are magma-poor. Some margins are narrow, while others are wide and strongly thinned. The chapter also discusses hyperextended margins, where continental crust has been extended to the point that mantle rocks are exposed at sea bottom. This chapter presents these different settings and discusses how passive margin types are related to the final stages of rifting or initial stages of break-up. The type of magmatism involved is discussed, as are the depositional patterns that characterize the different kinds of passive margins. A number of natural examples are presented in this chapter, particularly from the south and north Atlantic margins.

Educational settings are becoming increasingly diverse including culture, gender, ability and religious beliefs. Yet, a mono-cultural approach to teaching that prioritises some learners while excluding others continues to be adopted (Morrison et al., 2019). Building on past education declarations, the Alice Springs (Mparntwe) Education Declaration (Education Council, 2019) has a strong focus on equity and social justice with goal 1 calling for ‘The Australian education system [to] promote[s] excellence and equity’. Building on this, goal 2 seeks to develop ‘confident and creative individuals; successful lifelong learners; active and informed members of the community’. If we are to meet these goals, educators need to recognise and embrace the lifeworlds of all learners and use these as platforms from which new learning can build; something that is at the heart of culturally responsive pedagogies (CRP). This chapter argues that educational approaches founded on pedagogies that draw on learner’s lifeworlds, lived experiences and funds of knowledge (Zipin, 2009), foster enhanced educational engagement, achievement and wellbeing.

In Chapter 3, we describe the evolution and development of groups as well as the emotional connection that often develops between group members and their groups. We examine several theories associated with group development. We conclude the chapter with a discussion of factors associated with group success and failure.