To identify and monitor food industry use of political practices during the adoption of nutrition warning labels (WL) in Colombia.

Document analysis of publicly available information triangulated with interviews.

Colombia.

Eighteen key informants from the government (n 2), academia (n 1), civil society (n 12), the media (n 2) and a former food industry employee (n 1).

In Colombia, the food industry used experts and groups funded by large transnationals to promote its preferred front-of-pack nutrition labelling (FOPL) and discredit the proposed warning models. The industry criticised the proposed WL, discussing the negative impacts they would have on trade, the excessive costs required to implement them and the fact that consumers were responsible for making the right choices about what to eat. Food industry actors also interacted with the government and former members of large trade associations now in decision-making positions in the public sector. The Codex Alimentarius was also a platform through which the industry got access to decision-making and could influence the FOPL policy.

In Colombia, the food industry used a broad range of political strategies that could have negatively influenced the FOPL policy process. Despite this influence, the mandatory use of WL was announced in February 2020. There is an urgent need to condemn such political practices as they still could prevent the implementation of other internationally recommended measures to improve population health in the country and abroad, nutrition WL being only of them.

To assess the relationship(s) between overall and within-food group diversity and several indices of dietary quality, such as dietary adequacy, moderation and balance, in Belgian adults. Dietary quality indices were derived from the food-based dietary guidelines (FBDG).

Information on food intake was collected with two 24 h recalls.

Average overall and within-food group diversity scores and dietary adequacy, moderation and balance scores were calculated.

A representative sample (n 3245) of the Belgian population at the age of 15 years and older was randomly selected from the National Register using a multistage stratified procedure.

For both men and women, total dietary diversity score increased with age and smokers had a significantly lower overall diversity score than non- or former smokers. A positive association was found between overall dietary diversity and both dietary adequacy and balance. For most food groups, especially bread and cereals, vegetables, dairy products and spreadable fats, within-food group dietary diversity was positively associated with the fulfilment of the specific recommendation for the intake of that food group. An inverse association was found between dietary diversity within the meat and the energy-dense, nutrient-poor food groups and dietary balance. Diversity within the dairy and spreadable fat group was responsible for the strongest increase in overall dietary adequacy and balance.

Overall dietary diversity is a useful indicator of dietary quality in Belgium. For some food groups, within-food group dietary diversity is a useful indicator of compliance with the specific FBDG for intake of that food group.

To examine dietary change that has occurred over 5 to 6 years.

A cohort of Scottish women (n=898) with a mean age of 47.5 years (range 45–54 years) at baseline.

Dietary intake was assessed by validated food-frequency questionnaire (FFQ) and analysed using the UK Composition of Foods database.

Since the first dietary assessment, mean daily energy intake had decreased from 8.2±2.3 to 7.9±2.2 MJ. The degree of low energy reporting (defined as ratio of energy intake to basal metabolic rate >1.1) had increased from 18.7% at baseline to 25.6% at follow-up. Low energy reporters were significantly heavier than ‘normal’ energy reporters (mean weight at follow-up, 68.9±12.6 vs. 66.8±11.3 kg) and could be deliberately restricting intake rather than underreporting. Overall there were decreases in intakes of red meat, processed meat and cheese, but increases in poultry and non-oily fish consumption. Consumption of bread, biscuits and cakes had gone down and there was an increase in cereal and rice/pasta consumption. Intake of potatoes had decreased whereas fruit intake had increased. There were small but statistically significant differences in intakes for most nutrients (>8% change). Nutrient intakes at both visits were similar across menopausal status and usage groups of hormone replacement therapy. Modifications to the computer version of the McCance and Widdowson nutrient database, which differed from the published version, were noted. These changes altered the original baseline values for our study.

The menopause per se is not a period of marked change in nutrient intake. Caution is advised when using computer databases of food compositions for longitudinal studies.

The prevalence of type 2 diabetes has been increasing in Finland, in parallel with a gradual increase in overweight and obesity during the past decades. The expanding prevalence of type 2 diabetes brings along complications, most importantly CVD. Therefore, it is extremely important to implement activities to prevent type 2 diabetes.

In the present paper, the clinical evidence for the prevention of type 2 diabetes is presented with the Finnish diabetes prevention study. In addition, the paper discusses the practical implementation of prevention of type 2 diabetes using three different types of prevention programmes as examples: FIN-D2D, including risk-screening and repeated consultation in primary health-care; FINNAIR, a workplace-targeted intervention project involving airline employees; and the good ageing in Lahti region (GOAL) programme, a community-based prevention programme.

FIN-D2D, the FINNAIR project and the GOAL programme have shown that screening for type 2 diabetes risk and implementing large-scale lifestyle intervention in primary health-care are feasible. However, the crucial questions still are whether it is possible to replicate the results concerning effectiveness of lifestyle intervention in primary and occupational health-care systems. Furthermore, it remains to be shown whether it is possible to achieve the same results in different health-care settings, cultures, regions and age groups, especially in adolescents and young adults among whom the increase in the incidence has been the highest. In addition, the importance of co-operation among all sections of society, citizens’ awareness of healthy lifestyles and the social inequalities in health must be emphasised because the diabetes epidemic cannot be solved only by concentrating on preventive actions carried out by health-care systems.

To document nutritional status and health behaviours of young indigenous women of childbearing age in rural communities in north Queensland.

Cross-sectional survey of 424 Aboriginal and 232 Torres Strait Islander (TSI) women aged 15–34 years, conducted in twenty-three rural and remote communities of far north Queensland in 1999–2000, with follow-up of a smaller cohort (n 132) in 2006–2007.

Weight, waist circumference, intake of fruit and vegetables, smoking, alcohol intake, fasting blood glucose, blood pressure, HDL cholesterol, γ-glutamyltransferase, red cell folate (RCF), interval weight and waist gain and incidence of diabetes.

Forty-one per cent of Aboriginal and 69 % of TSI had central obesity, 62 % were smokers, 71 % drank alcohol regularly and of those, 60 % did so at harmful levels. One third of Aboriginal and 16 % of TSI women had very low RCF levels. In the group followed up, there was a mean annual waist gain of 1·6 cm in Aboriginal women and 1·2 cm in TSI, 0·5 kg/m2 in BMI and 1·5 kg in weight. Incidence of new type 2 diabetes mellitus in this cohort was 29·1 per 1000 person-years (py) (95 % CI 14·0, 52·8) in Aboriginal women and 13·9 per 1000 py (95 % CI 5·6, 28·5) among TSI.

High prevalence and incidence of central obesity and diabetes, poor nutrition, high rates of alcohol use and tobacco smoking together with young maternal age, provide a poor intra-uterine environment for many indigenous Australian babies, and contribute to high perinatal morbidity and future disability. Community level interventions to improve pre-pregnancy nutrition and health behaviours in young women are urgent.

The purpose of this paper is to present longitudinal data on nutrient intakes of youth with emphases on differences by sex and race/ethnicity. Nutrients selected for examination are those implicated in chronic disease.

24-hour dietary recalls were collected from a cohort of third, fifth and eighth graders (n=1874).

The sample is drawn from the Child and Adolescent Trial for Cardiovascular Health and includes students from California, Louisiana, Minnesota and Texas.

Across the total sample, nutrient intakes met recommended levels except that total fat, saturated fat and sodium consistently exceeded recommendations and calcium and iron intake of girls consistently fell short of recommended levels. Nutrient consumption between third and eighth grade differed by sex and race/ethnicity for a number of nutrients. In particular, females' intake of energy from total fat, calcium, iron, folic acid, vitamin A and vitamin D decreased over time relative to males' intakes, controlling for overall energy intake. Compared with the other ethnic/racial groups, African-American students increased their intake of energy from total fat and saturated fat over time.

Our results suggest that the diets of youth change over time, and negative trends are more common in females than in males and in African-American and Hispanics compared with Caucasian students. Nutrition education and intervention are needed throughout childhood and adolescence with an emphasis on choosing healthful foods. In addition, greater attention to differential opportunities and reinforcements for females and males, and Caucasian, Hispanic and African-American students is warranted.

The aim of this study was to determine the food sources and acquisition practices used by homeless youth in Adelaide. This work is part of a larger study that aimed to examine the extent and nature of food insecurity among homeless youth.

Cross-sectional design involving quantitative and qualitative methods.

Four health and welfare inner-city agencies serving homeless youth in Adelaide, South Australia.

A sample of 150 homeless youth aged between 15 and 24 years recruited from these agencies. Fifteen were selected via snowball sampling for interview.

Use of welfare food sources was high (63%). Food from welfare agencies was supplemented by unorthodox food acquisition methods such as theft (65%), begging for money for food (61%), begging for food items (44%) and asking for help from friends and relatives (34%). Reasons given for non-usage of welfare food services included affordability, access, being too busy, shame or embarrassment.

Food insecurity is a salient issue for some homeless youth in Adelaide. Clarifying food acquisition practices of food-insecure homeless youth is essential for rational planning and improvement of food-related services to meet their needs. Such an understanding also underpins the development of broader public policy responses that improve individual and household skills and resources to acquire food and ensure food security. Nutrition professionals, welfare professionals and policy-makers need to work sensitively with welfare food agencies and others to improve food access and food security for homeless youth.

The aim of the present study was to investigate if context-specific measures of parental-reported physical activity and sedentary behaviour are associated with objectively measured physical activity and sedentary time in children.

Cross-sectional study.

Seven European countries taking part in the IDEFICS (Identification and Prevention of Dietary- and Lifestyle-induced Health Effects in Children and Infants) study.

Data were analysed from 2–9-year-old children (n 5982) who provided both parental-reported and accelerometer-derived physical activity/sedentary behaviour measures. Parents reported their children’s daily screen-time, weekly sports participation and daily outdoor playtime by means of the Outdoor Playtime Checklist (OPC) and Outdoor Playtime Recall Questions (OPRQ).

Sports participation, OPC- and OPRQ-derived outdoor play were positively associated with accelerometer-derived physical activity. Television viewing and computer use were positively associated with accelerometer-derived sedentary time. All parental-reported measures that were significantly associated with accelerometer outcomes explained only a minor part of the variance in accelerometer-derived physical activity or sedentary time.

Parental-reported measures of physical activity and sedentary behaviour are not useful as a proxy for 2–9-year-old children’s physical activity and sedentary time. Findings do not preclude the use of context-specific measures but imply that conclusions should be limited to the context-specific behaviours that are actually measured. Depending on the aim of the study, future research should carefully consider the choice of measurements, including the use of subjective or objective measures of the behaviour of interest or a combination of both.

To evaluate the Canadian Diet History Questionnaire I (C-DHQ I) food list and to adapt the US DHQ II for Canada using Canadian dietary survey data.

Twenty-four-hour dietary recalls reported by adults in a national Canadian survey were analysed to create a food list corresponding to C-DHQ I food questions. The percentage contribution of the food list to the total survey intake of seventeen nutrients was used as the criterion to evaluate the suitability of the C-DHQ I to capture food intake in Canadian populations. The data were also analysed to identify foods and to modify portion sizes for the C-DHQ II.

The Canadian Community Health Survey (CCHS) – Cycle 2.2 Nutrition (2004).

Adults (n 20 159) who completed 24 h dietary recalls during in-person interviews.

Four thousand five hundred and thirty-three foods and recipes were grouped into 268 Food Groups, of which 212 corresponded to questions on the C-DHQ I. Nutrient intakes captured by the C-DHQ I ranged from 79 % for fat to 100 % for alcohol. For the new C-DHQ II, some food questions were retained from the original US DHQ II while others were added based on foods reported in CCHS and foods available on the Canadian market since 2004. Of 153 questions, 143 were associated with portion sizes of which fifty-three were modified from US values. Sex-specific nutrient profiles for the C-DHQ II nutrient database were derived using CCHS data.

The C-DHQ I and II are designed to optimize the capture of foods consumed by Canadian populations.

Food insecurity has been rising across Europe following the Great Recession, but to varying degrees across countries and over time. The reasons for this increase are not well understood, nor are what factors might protect people’s access to food. Here we test the hypothesis that an emerging gap between food prices and wages can explain increases in reported inability to afford protein-rich foods and whether welfare regimes can mitigate its impact.

We collected data in twenty-one countries from 2004 to 2012 using two databases: (i) on food prices and deprivation related to food (denoted by reported inability to afford to eat meat, chicken, fish or a vegetarian equivalent every second day) from EuroStat 2015 edition; and (ii) on wages from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 2015 edition.

After adjusting for macroeconomic factors, we found that each 1 % rise in the price of food over and above wages was associated with greater self-reported food deprivation (β=0·060, 95 % CI 0·030, 0·090), particularly among impoverished groups. However, this association also varied across welfare regimes. In Eastern European welfare regimes, a 1 % rise in the price of food over wages was associated with a 0·076 percentage point rise in food deprivation (95 % CI 0·047, 0·105) while in Social Democratic welfare regimes we found no clear association (P=0·864).

Rising prices of food coupled with stagnating wages are a major factor driving food deprivation, especially in deprived groups; however, our evidence indicates that more generous welfare systems can mitigate this impact.

To assess the long-term relationship between tree nut consumption and the risk of developing metabolic syndrome (MetS).

Nut consumption was collected using a validated 136-item FFQ. The MetS was defined according to the International Diabetes Federation and American Heart Association/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute harmonizing definition. The association between nut consumption and MetS was assessed with logistic regression models adjusting for potential confounders. We compared the incidence of MetS between extreme categories of nut intake (≥2 servings/week v. never/almost never) after 6 years of follow-up.

The SUN Project (Seguimiento Universidad de Navarra, University of Navarra Follow-up) is a prospective cohort study, formed of Spanish university graduates. Information is gathered by mailed questionnaires collected biennially. Nut consumption and MetS information was collected by self-reported data.

Participants (n 9887) initially free of MetS or diabetes and followed up for a minimum of 6 years were included.

We observed 567 new cases of MetS during follow-up. Participants who consumed nuts ≥2 servings/week presented a 32 % lower risk of developing MetS than those who never/almost never consumed (adjusted OR = 0·68, 95 % CI 0·50, 0·92). The inverse association was stronger among participants who were health professionals.

Nut consumption was significantly associated with lower risk of developing MetS after a 6-year follow-up period in a cohort of Spanish graduates.

Most children do not meet the recommended intake of vegetables. Variety was identified as a potential factor to increase children's intake of these foods, as it was shown that variety was effective in improving meal composition in adults. Because younger children are suggested to be more responsive to internal satiation signals than to external food-related cues compared with adults, it is not clear whether variety is effective to improve meal composition in 7- to 10-year-old children.

Experiment.

Children were assigned one of three different fake food buffets containing pasta, chicken, and either one vegetable (carrots or beans) or two vegetables (carrots and beans). The children were asked to serve themselves a meal that they would like to eat for lunch from the given selection.

One hundred children (fifty-two boys; mean age 8·8 (sd 1·1) years).

Children given the two-vegetable choice served themselves significantly more energy from vegetables (mean 64 (sd 51) kJ, 10·9 (sd 9·4) %) compared with children who were offered only either carrots (mean 37 (sd 25) kJ, 5·9 (sd 6·5) %) or beans (mean 38 (sd 34) kJ, 5·6 (sd 6·3) %). The total energy of the meal was not increased, indicating that children chose a more balanced lunch when offered more vegetables.

School-aged children are responsive to food-related cues and variety is effective in increasing their vegetable choice. Serving an assortment of vegetables in school cafeterias might be a simple and effective strategy to improve children's nutrition.

In developed countries, there is abundant information on the epidemic of childhood obesity, but only a few studies on trends in the dual burden of body weight (overweight and thinness).

To examine trends in overweight and thinness among 9–10-year-old Spanish children in the last decade.

Data were taken from cross-sectional studies on schoolchildren in Cuenca (Spain), conducted in 1992, 1996, 1998 and 2004 with similar methods. Weight and height were measured by trained personnel with standardized procedures. Overweight (including obesity) and thinness were defined according with the International Obesity Taskforce BMI cut-offs.

The overall prevalence of overweight increased from 24·4 % in 1992 to 30·9 % in 2004 (P = 0·07), rising from 21·2 % in 1992 to 32·0 % in 2004 (P = 0·03) among boys and from 27·7 % to 29·8 % (P = 0·67) among girls. The overall prevalence of thinness was 2·7 % in 1992 and 9·2 % in 2004 (P < 0·001); in the same period, thinness prevalence rose from 1·9 % to 9·0 % (P = 0·10) among boys and from 3·7 % to 9·5 % (P < 0·01) among girls.

The dual burden of body weight has increased among children in Cuenca in the last decade. Population-based policies addressing childhood obesity, which is the most frequent problem, should not increase the risk of thinness.

Observational studies reported potential associations between different dietary patterns and the risk of metabolic syndrome (MetS); however, a consistent perspective has not been established to date. The current systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to evaluate the relationship between a posteriori dietary patterns and MetS by pooling available data.

MEDLINE and EMBASE databases were searched for relevant articles published up to July 2015 with no time restriction and with English language restriction. Two independent reviewers completed study selection and data extraction. Random-effects models (DerSimonian–Laird method) were used to pool effect sizes of eligible studies. The potential sources of heterogeneity were assessed using the I2 statistic.

Nineteen papers that identified dietary patterns using an a posteriori method were selected and included in the meta-analysis. The ‘Healthy/Prudent’ dietary pattern was inversely associated with risk of MetS (OR=0·89; 95 % CI 0·84, 0·94, P=0·002). In contrast, the ‘Unhealthy/Western’ dietary pattern had a significant positive association with risk of MetS (OR=1·16; 95 % CI 1·11, 1·22, P<0·001).

Our findings provide evidence that greater adherence to a healthy/prudent dietary pattern is associated with a lower risk of MetS, while an unhealthy/Western dietary pattern is associated with increased risk of MetS. These data suggest that a diet based on healthy food choices is also beneficial for prevention of MetS.

To measure the occurrence and correlates of food insufficiency among HIV-infected crack-cocaine users in Atlanta and Miami, USA.

Non-probability cross-sectional sample.

Inner-city hospitals in Atlanta and Miami.

Two hundred and eighty-seven HIV-infected crack users.

One-third (34 %) of respondents experienced food insufficiency within 30 d of interview. Increased odds of food insufficiency was associated with current homelessness (adjusted OR = 3·78, 95 % CI 1·70, 8·41), living alone (adjusted OR = 2·85, 95 % CI 1·36, 5·98), religious service attendance (adjusted OR = 2·34, 95 % CI 1·02, 5·38) and presence of health insurance (adjusted OR = 2·41, 95 % CI 1·06, 5·54). Monthly income greater than $US 600 (adjusted OR = 0·19, 95 % CI 0·06, 0·58) was associated with decreased odds of food insufficiency, and less than weekly crack use was marginally associated with decreased odds of food insufficiency (adjusted OR = 0·39, 95 % CI 0·13, 1·08).

Food insufficiency is very prevalent among HIV-infected urban crack-cocaine users in Atlanta and Miami. Correlates of food insufficiency confirm the social vulnerability of these individuals. Routine assessment for food insecurity should become a routine component of treatment and prevention programmes in at-risk populations.

Dietary questionnaires for assessing dietary intakes among populations of individuals aged 80 years or older (the very old) are very limited. We examined the relative validity of forty-three nutrients and twenty-seven food groups estimated by a brief-type self-administered diet history questionnaire (BDHQ) targeting very old Japanese, using semi-weighed dietary records (DR) as a reference.

Between June and August 2012 and between June 2015 and February 2016, a three-day non-consecutive DR (at two-week intervals) and a BDHQ were completed.

Tokyo, the capital prefecture of Japan.

Eighty very old Japanese (thirty-six men and forty-four women) aged 82–94 years.

The median intakes of 40–70 % of the crude and energy-adjusted nutrients estimated by the BDHQ were significantly different from those estimated by the DR. The median Spearman’s correlation coefficient of nutrient intakes between the BDHQ and the DR was 0·39–0·46. About half (48–56 %) of the food groups were significantly different in terms of the median intakes estimated by the BDHQ and the DR in crude and energy-adjusted values. The median Spearman’s correlation coefficient between the BDHQ and the DR was 0·45–0·48.

Acceptable Spearman’s correlations (≥0·3) were obtained for many dietary intakes among the very old Japanese population. The BDHQ is a good candidate for epidemiological studies among very old Japanese, although, for some nutrients and food groups, the difficulty of estimating accurate median intakes is one of the limitations for the tool. Further efforts to enhance the validity of the BDHQ for very old populations are needed.

It is likely that there are substantial subconscious effects of organizations’ efforts to associate their products with sport via sponsorships, but most research methods are unable to capture these effects. The present study employed a novel projective technique to explore children's implicit associations between popular sports and a range of sports sponsors.

Children participated in an activity using magnets bearing the logos of numerous sports and sponsors. They were invited to arrange the magnets on a whiteboard without being advised that the activity related to sponsorship.

Perth, Western Australia.

Children (n 164) aged 5–12 years.

Three-quarters (76 %) of the children aligned at least one correct sponsor magnet with the relevant sport. Just over half the children (54 %) correctly matched the most popular sport (an Australian Football League team) with its relevant sponsor (a fast-food chain).

Given the unstructured nature of the projective task, the results provide some support for the argument that sports sponsorship can effectively reach child audiences. This is of concern given the current extent of sponsorship by alcohol and fast-food companies.

To compare non-ethnically based supermarkets and Latino grocery stores (tiendas) in a lower-income region with regard to the availability, quality and cost of several healthy v. unhealthy food items.

A cross-sectional study conducted by three independent observers to audit twenty-five grocery stores identified as the main source of groceries for 80 % of Latino families enrolled in a childhood obesity study. Stores were classified as supermarkets and tiendas on the basis of key characteristics.

South San Diego County.

Ten tiendas and fifteen supermarkets.

Tiendas were smaller than supermarkets (five v. twelve aisles, P = 0·003). Availability of fresh produce did not differ by store type; quality differed for one fruit item. Price per unit (pound or piece) was lower in tiendas for most fresh produce. The cost of meeting the US Department of Agriculture's recommended weekly servings of produce based on an 8368 kJ (2000 kcal)/d diet was $US 3·00 lower in tiendas compared with supermarkets (P < 0·001). The cost of 1 gallon of skimmed milk was significantly higher in tiendas ($US 3·29 v. $US 2·69; P = 0·005) and lean (7 % fat) ground beef was available in only one tienda (10 %) compared with ten (67 %) supermarkets (P = 0·01).

Barriers remain in the ability to purchase healthier dairy and meat options in tiendas; the same is not true for produce. These results highlight the potential that tiendas have in improving access to quality, fresh produce within lower-income communities. However, efforts are needed to increase the access and affordability of healthy dairy and meat products.

We investigated whether a higher number of fast-food outlets in an individual’s home neighbourhood is associated with increased prevalence of type 2 diabetes mellitus and related risk factors, including obesity.

Cross-sectional study.

Three UK-based diabetes screening studies (one general population, two high-risk populations) conducted between 2004 and 2011. The primary outcome was screen-detected type 2 diabetes. Secondary outcomes were risk factors for type 2 diabetes.

In total 10 461 participants (mean age 59 years; 53 % male; 21 % non-White ethnicity).

There was a higher number of neighbourhood (500 m radius from home postcode) fast-food outlets among non-White ethnic groups (P<0·001) and in socially deprived areas (P<0·001). After adjustment (social deprivation, urban/rural, ethnicity, age, sex), more fast-food outlets was associated with significantly increased odds for diabetes (OR=1·02; 95 % CI 1·00, 1·04) and obesity (OR=1·02; 95 % CI 1·00, 1·03). This suggests that for every additional two outlets per neighbourhood, we would expect one additional diabetes case, assuming a causal relationship between the fast-food outlets and diabetes.

These results suggest that increased exposure to fast-food outlets is associated with increased risk of type 2 diabetes and obesity, which has implications for diabetes prevention at a public health level and for those granting planning permission to new fast-food outlets.

Green tea has been widely acknowledged in Japan to induce a pleasurable mental feeling. Recent laboratory studies have suggested positive psychological effects as a result of consuming green tea. The present study examined whether green tea consumption in everyday life in Japan is associated with positive mental health.

A cross-sectional study was performed in February–March 2002.

The subjects of the study consisted of a general population of 600 Japanese aged 20–69 years. Responses of 380 subjects, obtained by home-visit interview, were analysed. The questionnaire inquired about consumption of brewed green tea and other beverages, perceived mental health status, lifestyle and others. The 12-item General Health Questionnaire (GHQ 12) was used for the assessment of mental ill-health (GHQ score ≥4).

After adjustments for age, area, perceived mental stress, lifestyle and daily caffeine intake, the consumption of brewed green tea was not statistically associated with any decrease in risk of mental ill-health among either males or females (odds ratio (OR) = 0.78, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.47–1.29 for males; OR = 0.77, 95% CI = 0.51–1.14 for females). Daily caffeine intake (100 mg) inclusive of green tea, black tea, coffee and other caffeine-containing beverages was associated with a higher risk of mental ill-health among females (OR = 1.26, 95% CI = 1.01–1.56).

The results provide population-based evidence on the consumption of brewed green tea in everyday life and mental health, together with information on consumption patterns of various beverages and lifestyles.