Roads are vital for the economic development of countries but they pose major problems for wildlife. The road network in Central America is expanding, yet information about wildlife–vehicle collisions is scarce. We compiled data on vertebrate collisions with vehicles in Guatemala, El Salvador and Honduras, from projects created on the citizen science platform iNaturalist, to provide the first assessment of how these species are affected by roads in northern Central America. Our projects gathered 670 wildlife roadkill records that had been logged by 95 users across the three countries, with 122 species identified. Mammals and reptiles represented 44 and 30% of the records, respectively, with opossums Didelphis spp. and Philander vossi, the common boa Boa constrictor and the neotropical whip snake Masticophis mentovarius being the most frequently reported species (112, 28, 43 and 23 records, respectively). One of the species recorded is categorized as globally Endangered on the IUCN Red List, two as Vulnerable, four as Near Threatened and four have not been evaluated. Forty-six species are listed as Threatened or Endangered nationally. This study is the first roadkill assessment in northern Central America to which both members of the public and specialists contributed, underscoring the value of public engagement and citizen science. We urge further assessment of road impacts on wildlife in this region using standardized methods to identify roadkill rates and hotspots, and the implementation of mitigation measures for existing and planned roads in the region.

Ecosystem disturbance is known to negatively affect herpetofauna. There are, however, few studies on the impact of volcanic ash fallout on reptile species and no known publications on any impacts on the family Phyllodactylidae. The Barbados leaf-toed gecko Phyllodactylus pulcher is a Critically Endangered lizard species endemic to the island of Barbados. During 9–22 April 2021, La Soufrière volcano on the neighbouring island of Saint Vincent erupted, leading to significant ash fallout on Barbados. Following this event, indices of body condition for the Barbados leaf-toed gecko declined significantly. However, monitoring over 17 months showed a gradual return to pre-ashfall indices for both males and females. Population-wide tail autotomy rates did not change significantly following the event. The proportion of gravid females significantly declined immediately after the ashfall event, although this exceeded the pre-ash proportion of the following year. Additionally, the proportion of females bearing two rather than one egg doubled in the year following the ashfall. It is unknown whether the decline in body condition is a direct consequence of exposure to ash or a secondary effect of declines in insects and vegetation cover; however, a synergy between these factors is probable.

Human-induced pressures such as climate and land-use changes in the Anthropocene disproportionately threaten island ecosystems and the endemic species they host. Shedding light on the ecological needs of island species is key to the conservation of these fragile ecosystems and their unique species. Here we present the ecological needs of a bat species endemic to Sardinia, the long-eared bat Plecotus sardus, and analyse the relationship between this Critically Endangered species and the insular environment at different spatial scales to inform action for its conservation. We show that besides displaying a unique phenology and roost use, the species is closely associated with the dry broadleaf forests of native oaks Quercus ilex and Quercus suber at all scales and, in contrast, is negatively affected by coniferous stands, open pastures and urban environments. Our results not only provide key information for the conservation of P. sardus but also provide insights into the unique adaptations of insular endemic species to the fragile island ecosystems, highlighting the importance of ecological studies to informing conservation in biodiversity hotspots. We also demonstrate that protection and restoration of key habitats, particularly within 2 km of roosts, are key to protecting the few known reproductive colonies.

This study examines mortality of the Amur tiger Panthera tigris altaica caused by traffic collision incidents in the Russian Far East from 1980 to 2023. Forty-six per cent of mortality incidents occurred within the last 4 years of this period (2020–2023) following an outbreak of African swine fever, which led to a reduction of prey available for tigers. Using multiple regression analysis, we identify significant predictors of tiger mortality, including road type, biotope, and distances to settlements and federally protected areas. We identified five locations with concentrations of tiger mortality, with four of these near protected areas comprising 54% of all incidents. Asphalt roads have an elevated risk of tiger deaths during the winter, whereas unpaved roads have elevated risk during warmer months. Wildlife-friendly road planning, including crossings and enhanced night-time controls, is crucial for reducing mortality and ensuring the survival of this species amidst increasing development of human infrastructure. This study highlights the urgent need for targeted conservation efforts to reduce traffic-related risks to the Amur tiger.

Island-endemic arthropods are understudied species and likely to be highly threatened with extinction. Analysis of IUCN Red List assessments can be used to highlight important microhabitats requiring conservation for the effective management of island-endemic arthropod biodiversity. We synthesized information on the 296 island-endemic arthropod species assessed as Critically Endangered as of April 2024, the geography of the islands to which they are endemic, and the broad threats they face. These species comprised 33 taxonomic orders, across which an average of 53% of species were limited entirely to tiny, confined areas of habitat: caves, high elevation areas, isolated pools or sea stacks. These micro-refugia are most utilized by crustaceans and least utilized by myriapods. Caves and pools are the most important habitats on temperate islands where habitat degradation threatens crustaceans. On small tropical islands where arachnids and hexapods are threatened by invasive species, refugia are mostly in high elevation areas. Sea stacks appear to be effective refugia from invasive species only for threatened island-endemics with notable long-distance dispersal adaptation. None of the refugia appear effective in sustaining arthropod species immediately threatened by climate change. Using the interaction between arthropod life history, habitat and threats, it is possible to generalize micro-refugia that (1) should be immediately targeted for management, and (2) could yield undescribed or presumed-extinct species. Prioritizing such refugia for management and research can guide efficient expenditure of local capacity. In our case study, on Ascension Island, micro-refugia for seven endemic arthropods covered < 0.1% of the island's total area.

Biodiversity credits are increasingly being promoted as an innovative tool for closing the biodiversity finance gap. A growing number of providers are offering biodiversity credits, either linked to carbon credits or as a new asset class in their own right. However, there are also warnings that they could become a double-edged sword for conservation and distract governments from their financial responsibilities agreed in the Global Biodiversity Framework. Biodiversity credits differ from other environmental policy instruments in that they offer a non-offsetting way of financing conservation and restoration activities. Well-designed credit schemes can therefore make a significant contribution to real net biodiversity gains. But to realize their full potential, biodiversity credits need to be based on a common methodology, broaden their focus to include marine areas, and respect the rights of local and Indigenous communities. Benefit sharing and embedding in regulatory approaches will be critical to their success.

Estimating the population size of shy and elusive species is challenging but necessary to inform appropriate conservation actions for threatened or declining species. Using camera-trap surveys conducted during 2017–2021, we estimated and compared African clawless otter Aonyx capensis population densities and activity times in six conserved areas in southern Africa. We used two different models to estimate densities: random encounter models and camera-trap distance sampling. Our results highlight a general pattern of higher estimated densities and narrower confidence intervals using random encounter models compared to camera-trap distance sampling. We found substantial variation in densities between study areas, with random encounter model estimates ranging between 0.9 and 4.2 otters/km2. Our camera-trap distance sampling estimates supported the relative density estimates obtained from random encounter models but were generally lower and more variable, ranging from 0.8 to 4.0 otters/km2. We found significant differences in otter activity patterns, with populations either being nocturnal, mostly nocturnal or cathemeral. As all study areas experience little human disturbance, our results suggest that there are large natural variations in otter densities and activity patterns between regions. When densities are converted to metrics that are comparable to previous studies, our estimates suggest that African clawless otter population numbers are generally lower than previously reported. This highlights a need for broader spatial coverage of otter population assessments and future studies to assess potential environmental drivers of spatial, and potentially temporal, variation in population numbers and activity patterns.

Conservation management in human-modified landscapes requires information on the sustainability of interactions between people and biodiversity. Wild Chinese alligators Alligator sinensis only persist within the National Chinese Alligator Reserve in south-eastern China, where they live alongside agricultural communities that utilize local terrestrial and wetland habitats. We conducted an interview survey of communities within and around the Reserve to evaluate whether local ecological knowledge can provide a baseline on the species' local status and trends, and to understand the relationships between land-use practices and alligator presence and survival. Respondents within the Reserve were more likely to recognize alligators, report sightings and perceive declines than other respondents. Absolute levels of knowledge and experience of alligators were low, highlighting the species' perilous status, and analysis of correlative patterns between respondents' experiences and associated data on human–environmental interactions provides new conservation-relevant insights. Alligator sightings were more likely to be reported by respondents who did not grow crops, and eggs and nests by those who did not utilize local water sources for irrigation, suggesting that existing environmental pressures associated with agriculture may be unsustainable for alligators. Although respondents who lived outside the Reserve were more likely to use agrochemicals, we found no relationship between pesticide or fertilizer usage and variation in respondent awareness or experience of alligators. Our findings indicate that China's last wild alligators continue to experience negative human pressures, and current land-use practices are probably incompatible with long-term alligator survival.

E-commerce applications have significantly changed how people transact with each other. This includes digital advances that drive illegal wildlife trade. In Indonesia, the Conservation Act of 1990 was enacted before the internet revolution and does not, therefore, adequately cover online illegal wildlife trade. In this study we identified wildlife traded illegally through advertisements published by five large national e-commerce companies and one social media platform operating in Indonesia, using 39 keywords. We also analysed data on wildlife cybercrime court case outcomes, associated criminal networks and their modus operandi. Over 12 months, we found 996 advertisements for wildlife and wildlife products, including of 45 nationally protected species, from 421 accounts. Amongst the six platforms monitored, Facebook Marketplace had the highest illegal wildlife trade traffic. We found that those prosecuted for online illegal wildlife trade were given low sentences. Our analysis of wildlife legislation, focus group discussions and expert interviews showed that the Government of Indonesia Trade Law (2014) and Law on Electronic Information and Transactions (2008) cannot be used to prosecute online illegal wildlife trade cases because these laws do not acknowledge regulations for protected species. Our study emphasizes the urgency of revising the Conservation Act and changing the definition of trade to include advertisements of protected species. We recommend development of screening tools for advertisements and accounts on e-commerce platforms, review of community/user guidelines to prohibit trade of protected species, and strengthening the approach of combining multi-context laws with stakeholder cooperation to prosecute online illegal wildlife trade cases.

Illegal hunting of migratory birds across the Mediterranean region is a serious international conservation issue with population-level impacts. We analysed photographs posted on social media platforms to assess the bird species illegally targeted in Lebanon. During 2011–2023 we reviewed 1,844 photographs publicly posted by poachers on Facebook and Instagram. In these images we identified 212 bird species, of which 94% are legally protected. Many are species of conservation concern, with 19 listed as threatened or Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List and 33% experiencing population declines in Europe. The five bird species with the most individuals illegally killed were the barn swallow Hirundo rustica, blackcap Sylvia atricapilla, European bee-eater Merops apiaster, Eurasian golden oriole Oriolus oriolus and ortolan bunting Emberiza hortulana. Raptors and other large soaring birds were particularly prevalent, with 35 species of raptor (particularly the European honey-buzzard Pernis apivorus, Eurasian sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus, common kestrel Falco tinnunculus, short-toed snake-eagle Circaetus gallicus and Levant sparrowhawk Accipiter brevipes) as well as storks, pelicans and cranes. Protected mammals were also posted as trophies, including the Near Threatened striped hyaena Hyaena hyaena. Poachers were present in 44% of photographs and were clearly identifiable 89% of the time, showing little concern about posting illegal activities on publicly accessible social media platforms. Our study is the first to use social media as a tool for assessing illegal hunting activities in Lebanon. We discuss both the use and limitations of this approach, as well as the ways in which social media can be utilized by law enforcement, to promote legal hunting or hunting alternatives and improve conservation education.

The spotted hyaena Crocuta crocuta is relatively understudied across its range despite evidence of widespread declines. It is therefore essential that robust baseline population density assessments are conducted to inform current management and future conservation policy. In Mozambique this is urgent as decades of armed conflict followed by unchecked poaching have resulted in large-scale wildlife declines and extirpations. We conducted the first robust population density estimate for a spotted hyaena population in Mozambique using spatially explicit capture–recapture methodologies. We recorded a relatively low population density of 0.8–2.1 hyaenas/100 km2 in the wildlife management area Coutada 11 in the Zambezi Delta of central Mozambique in 2021. These densities are well below the estimated carrying capacity for the landscape and are comparable to published densities in high human-impact, miombo woodland-dominated and arid environments. The combination of historical armed conflict, marginal trophy hunting and bushmeat poaching using wire snares and gin traps (with physical injuries evident in 9% of identified individuals) presents persistent anthropogenic pressure, limiting the post-war recovery of this resident hyaena population. We provide insights into the dynamics of hyaena population status and recovery in such post-war landscapes, adding to mounting evidence that the species is less resilient to severe anthropogenic disturbances than previously believed. We recommend long-term monitoring of this and other carnivore populations in post-war landscapes to ascertain demographic trends and implement effective conservation interventions for population recovery.

The export of ornamental fishes from Malawi has received limited attention regarding its sustainability or the conservation status of any threatened species involved in this trade. To identify any species that require specific management actions, we used a negative binomial regression model to examine the relationship between the number of exported fish and year of export, adjusted for fish prices and the number of fish exporters. We also examined the correlation between export volume trends and the conservation status of fish species. We identified three groups of fish species based on their export volume trends: species with no trends, with decreasing trends and with increasing trends. There was no significant correlation between export volume trends and the conservation status of fish species. The export volume trends of individual species appear to be related to the number of exporters, price and, potentially, anthropogenic factors affecting fish populations. Based on our findings we recommend the inclusion of ornamental fishery management issues in a revised Fisheries and Aquaculture Policy. This should include strategies to control overexploitation of species with declining export volume trends, and conservation of threatened species and a ban on their export. We recommend further research to establish the population status of the exploited fish species and to identify any other factors linked to the volume trends of ornamental fish exports.

Climate and land-use changes are major threats to amphibian conservation. However, amphibians on tropical oceanic islands appear to have been overlooked with regards to their vulnerability to global anthropogenic threats. Here we examine whether there are gaps in research evaluating the vulnerability of tropical oceanic island amphibians to climate and land-use changes. We carried out a systematic review of the literature on experimental studies published during 1 July 1998–30 June 2022, to evaluate whether there are knowledge gaps in relation to geographical scope, taxonomic representation, life stage assessment, the factors affecting amphibians and how species and populations respond to these factors. Of 327 articles on climate change and 451 on land-use change, the research of only 18 was carried out on tropical oceanic islands, only on anurans, and < 20% of the authors were affiliated with an oceanic island institution. These 18 studies were on only five islands, and the range of families and life stages assessed was limited. We also found uneven research into the factors affecting oceanic island amphibians and their responses; analyses involving the effect of temperature on amphibian range expansion or contraction were the most common, with few studies of the effects of salinity. The scarcity and unevenness of research from oceanic islands limit our understanding of the effects of climate and land-use changes on amphibians. We discuss potential reasons for these knowledge gaps and recommend ways to address them, such as more equitable distribution of resources and provision of training and research opportunities for island-based biologists.

Maintaining jaguar Panthera onca subpopulations throughoutMesoamerica is vital to range-wide jaguar conservation. Corcovado National Parkin Costa Rica is critical habitat for the Osa Peninsula jaguar subpopulation.There is a debate regarding whether the jaguars in this National Park are in astate of crisis. To examine this, we implemented long-term camera-trapmonitoring throughout Corcovado National Park during 2015–2021. Using aspatially explicit Jolly–Seber model we estimated jaguar populations anddistribution throughout our study area. Additionally, we reran our model using aconstrained study area to compare our findings with those of a previous study.Trends in jaguar abundance indices and population estimates during2015–2021 indicate that jaguar abundance has increased over time. Ourjaguar density estimates also fall within the range of jaguar densities reportedfor relatively stable populations elsewhere. Using the same study area as thatof a prior study, jaguar densities also increased over the duration of our studyand were mostly comparable to previous density estimates. Our results suggestthat jaguars within Corcovado National Park may not be in a state of crisis.Rather, our findings provide further hope for the jaguars of the Osa Peninsula.They do not, however, diminish the importance of continued conservation efforts.These will remain critical both inside and outside Corcovado National Park, asthreats appear to have persisted over time.

The thick-shelled river mussel Unio crassus is categorized as Endangered on the IUCN Red List, and searching for surviving populations is urgent. We surveyed for this species in Kaliningradskaya Oblast, a Russian territory lying between Poland and Lithuania, where empty shells of the species had been reported from two rivers. There are at least 125 rivers and numerous small streams in the region, and as a comprehensive survey of all of these watercourses is infeasible, we used a method developed for surveys of the freshwater pearl mussels Margaritifera margaritifera and Margaritifera laevis. This involved a remote assessment of the forests and lakes in the river basins to identify sites potentially suitable for U. crassus based on criteria used for pearl mussels, followed by site surveys. We surveyed six sites and discovered U. crassus in five of those, only two of which support healthy populations. The existence of other U. crassus populations in Kaliningradskaya Oblast is unlikely. This study underscores the critical role of riparian arboreal vegetation for freshwater mussels. The conservation of U. crassus in rivers surrounded by farmlands is challenging because of siltation, eutrophication and other processes that negatively impact the riverine environment. Even the abandonment of these farmlands does not necessarily lead to improvements in mussel survival. Any plans for the restoration of U. crassus will require concurrent restoration of riparian arboreal vegetation.