Traditional custodial care in mental hospitals has given way to brief hospitalizations and a variety of active inpatient treatment milieus, eg, therapeutic communities. But can only well-educated patients utilize this kind of complex, even demanding form of psychosocial care? A total of 1,538 patients and their first admissions from 1977 to 1993 at a closed therapeutic community ward at the Department of Psychiatry, University of Oulu (Finland) were assessed to analyze the association of the patient's educational level with some treatment and outcome characteristics. Educational levels were non-professional education (46% of all patients), lower professional (39%) and higher professional education (15%). There were no statistically significant differences in the treatment and outcome variables of patients in any educational level. The result indicates the achievement of one treatment goal on the therapeutic community model, ie, patient equality in spite of different educational status. This result may be especially important for less educated persons.

Soluble Interleukin-6 receptor (sIL-6R) levels are strongly related to the levels of Interleukin-6 (IL-6), and sIL-6Rs increase the immune activating properties of IL-6. We estimated sIL-6R serum levels in 25 schizophrenic patients and 25 healthy controls. In the patients, SIL-6R-CSF levels were also measured. The psychopathology was rated according to the AMDP system. We found a significant correlation between serum and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) levels of sIL-6R, suggesting that serum levels may be a meaningful marker for the central action of sIL-6R. Moreover, significant correlations between the paranoid-hallucinatory syndrome and sIL-6R levels both in serum and CSF were observed. This finding suggests that IL-6 plays a role in the paranoid-hallucinatory symptomatology in schizophrenia. This can be understood regarding the influence of IL-6 to the catecholaminergic neurotransmission. The downregulating effects of neuroleptic treatment to sIL-6R demonstrate that the sIL-6R levels are decreased in the whole group of schizophrenic patients compared to controls.

Assessment of quality of life (QoL) and use of this information towards improvement of health care services is an important area of activity of the World Health Organization (WHO). This paper briefly discusses the conceptual basis and the methodology used in WHO's Quality of Life Project (WHOQOL). It describes the simultaneous development of instruments in widely different cultures to assess subjective QoL. Use of these instruments in the field of clinical trials with psychotropics is highlighted.

This was a metabolic study of bulimia nervosa required to design short-term cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) beginning with a brief admission to a psychiatric ward. The treatment produced significant improvements in eating behaviour and results are compared with those of previously published studies. The comparisons do not suggest that brief admission at the onset of therapy might enhance its effectiveness. In other respects, increase in normal meal intake was found to correlate significantly with decrease in hinging. This supports the notion that appropriate food intake at meal times should be an important issue in CBT for bulimia nervosa.

Quality assurance is the corrective action applied to any observed discrepancy between optimal and actual level of medical care requiring continuous quality control. Obviously, quality assurance is of utmost importance also in psychiatric practice. Quality care as defined by the degree of adherence to standards and guidelines can be measured in terms of structural, process and outcome indicators applied to inpatient, outpatient and complementary services. To promote the implementation of practice guidelines into psychiatric care conceptual, methodological, and organisational requirements must be taken into account.

A literature review identified nearly 500 papers in which references to quality of life (QoL) were made in the context of schizophrenia. Despite this, only two studies could be found where efforts had been made to assess the impact of pharmaceutical products on the QoL of patients with schizophrenia. It is argued that lack of progress in this area of research results from the absence of an adequate schizophrenia-specific QoL instrument. The present paper details the requirements for such an instrument, reviews health status instruments that have been used with schizophrenic patients and describes the methodology required for producing a new instrument. It is argued that the pharmaceutical industry should consider joint financing of such development work, given the importance of a reliable, valid and responsive outcome instrument for clinical trials. Such an instrument would also prove valuable when assessing alternative management programmes.

There is currently no simple and morbidity-free procedure available to determine opiate dependence in patients. There is preliminary evidence, however, that the naloxone conjunctival test may be useful in this regard. This test consists of instilling a drop of saline solution of naloxone hydrochloride (an opiate-receptor antagonist) into the subject's eye. This causes significant homolateral mydriasis (anisocoria) in the eye of a chronic opioid-dependent subject and not in that of a non-dependent subject. We reviewed the international literature on the naloxone conjunctival test using the Medline database and a manual search of major scientific journals specialized in the field of substance abuse. Up to March 1995, we identified six articles dealing specifically with the use of opiate antagonist ophthalmic solutions in populations of chronic opioid addicts. Four of the articles reported the occurrence of mydriasis when a solution of naloxone is used in opioid addicts. Two of the articles reported that there was no differential change in pupil size when the naloxone solution is used; however, one study used a much weaker and the other a much stronger solution of naloxone than reported in the other studies. From our review of the literature, it appears that the naloxone conjunctival test holds great promise as a simple and morbidity-free method of testing for chronic opioid addiction and, therefore, it should be studied further and its usage eventually developed.

The authors investigated the post-halfway house outcome of a sample of 41 former residents of the halfway house of the Department of Psychiatry, Athens University. Two criteria were used: hospital recidivism and global ratings of outcome (which was assessed on the basis of three parameters: rehospitalization, employment and independent living). Mean duration from the time of departure was 32 months (range: 8–52 months). Within this period good outcome and non-recidivism were related with compliance to pharmacotherapy. Most recidivists also had a shorter stay in the halfway house and cases with successful outcome tended to be evaluated higher on the “Behaviour in Halfway House Scale” at the end of the residency.

The prolactin, cortisol and growth hormone (GH) responses to intravenous administration of 25 mg clomipramine (CMI) were studied in young male psychotic patients who had never received neuroleptics and suffered from schizophrenia (13 patients), delusional disorder (three patients) or schizoaffective disorder (one patient). The test was repeated after 1 month in 16 patients who were hospitalized and treated with haloperidol in doses appropriate for best clinical response (range: 7.5–40 mg daily). Symptomatology was assessed by the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale (BPRS). There was no association of the side effects caused by the administration of CMI (nausea and emesis) to the GH responses. The side effects appeared significantly less in the after treatment trials. Treatment with haloperidol did not influence the response patterns of the three hormones. An indication that high haloperidol doses may inhibit the prolactin response to CMI was obtained when the data were compared between low (7.5–10 mg/day, mean 9.7) and high (15–40 mg/day, mean 22.0) dose subgroups. Significant positive correlations were found between the prolactin and cortisol responses to CMI in the drug-free state, and the scores in the positive symptoms subscale of the BPRS. The degree of improvement did not correlate to any of the hormonal data.

This study examines the stability of ICD-10 diagnoses of patients admitted to Al Ain (United Arab Emirates) inpatients psychiatric unit during the period from November 1993 to August 1995. Diagnostic stability is a measure of the degree to which diagnoses remained unchanged at a later hospital admission. One hundred and seven patients were admitted more than once during this period, accounting for 168 readmissions. High levels of diagnostic stability were found for ICD-10 Fl-psychiatric disorders (100%), F2-schizophrenia (87%), F3-bipolar disorders (87%) and F3-depressive disorders (73%). A poor level of stability was found for patients with neurotic, stress related and adjustment disorders (F4), ranging from zero for somatoform disorders to 50% for generalized anxiety and panic disorders. Poor levels of stability were also found for other psychoses (excluding schizophrenia and affective psychoses) and personality disorders. We conclude that the introduction of ICD-10 as a formal diagnostic system has greatly improved the temporal stability of the most commonly encountered psychiatric disorders (ICD-10 Fl to F3 disorders), confirming the construct validity of those psychiatric disorders. Further investigations are required to evaluate the diagnostic stability of neurotic and other psychotic disorders.

In this study we tested whether initial clinical change (ICC) and initial subjective response (ISR) predict the outcome of antidepressant pharmacotherapy and whether ICC and ISR as predictors reflect specific pharmacological actions or a placebo effect. Forty patients with major depression were treated with three different antidepressants for 4 weeks. Overall clinical change and final subjective response were taken as outcome criteria. The patients were randomly assigned to two subgroups in a double-blind design. Initially, one group received the active drug and the other placebo. Afterwards, all patients were given the active drug. Significant correlations were found between ICC and ISR and at least one of the outcome criteria in the total sample and in each subgroup. The findings show that ICC and ISR may be significant predictors of outcome. The predictive value of ICC and ISR is not due to initial pharmacological effects, but to non-specific treatment factors.

The purpose of this study was to compare epidemiological trends in suicide for the three regions of the United Kingdom (England and Wales, Northern Ireland, and Scotland) and for Ireland from 1960 to 1990. The data on suicide rates were obtained from the World Health Organization statistical base, supplemented by data from the statistical offices of the four regions. While the suicide rates in Ireland, Northern Ireland and Scotland increased during the period under study, English/Welsh suicide rates first declined and then held steady. In Ireland, both male and female suicide rates increased, whereas in the other regions only male suicide rates rose. According to age, in England and Wales, suicide rates rose for male teenagers and young males, while for the other regions male suicide rates increased in general for all age groups. Social indicators (unemployment, marriage and birth rates) were quite successful in predicting male suicide rates in all four regions and in predicting female suicide rates in England and Wales and in Ireland. The results emphasize the importance of studying several regions in epidemiological studies in order to identify which trends are general and which are unique to one nation. In the present study, the epidemiological trends for suicide in England and Wales were quite different from those in the other three regions. In particular, the steady overall suicide rate in England and Wales and the rising suicide rate for young males alone differ from the trends observed in the other regions and raise importante questions about the causes of the social suicide rate in these four regions.

There are extrinsic as well as intrinsic limits to the resources available for health care. Therefore, economic factors have become an essential part of medical activity, leading to a disruption of the traditional doctor-patient relationships. A new economic approach of health care (ie, through managed care) and ethical attitude (to overcome the limits of managed care) are essential, especially in psychiatric practice.

Insomnia affects about one-third of the population, and is associated with increased morbidity and mortality, reduced production and higher rates of accidents. This suggests that insomnia may burden society with significant cost. However, a precise economic analysis of insomnia is a challenge. Insomnia is part of a very complex interplay of physical and psychological illness, functioning both as a cause and as a consequence. In this paper, some of the methodological issues related to an economic analysis of insomnia are discussed. Data is presented using an economic analysis as an organizer, thus illustrating what conclusions can be drawn, and where further research is needed.

We studied DSM-IV catatonic features in 120 psychiatric inpatients with a main diagnosis of acute psychotic, affective or cognitive disorder. Individual catatonic features were highly intercorrelated, although diagnostically nonspecific. A single factor, accounting for 85% of the variance, was extracted and interpreted as representing both types (excited and retarded) of catatonic syndrome.

The understanding and classification of persistently depressed mood has undergone many changes since the term ‘dysthymia’ was first used nearly 150 years ago. Originally it was applied to both melancholia and mania; later it was applied to depressive personality. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM)-III in 1980 and in subsequent updates classified dysthymia as a mood disorder, characterized by a frequently insidious onset and a course that is chronic and unremitting. The assessment of clinical response in the pharmacologic treatment of dysthymia has been more difficult than that for major depression. The Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression, among others, is oriented towards episodic rather than chronic states of depression. A new rating scale, the Cornell Dysthymia Rating Scale, has been developed to better assess milder symptomatology in chronically depressed patients. Early studies suggest its utility, but further validation of the scale is needed in patients with dysthymia and without major depression.

Controlled clinical trials have shown that the atypical neuroleptic clozapine is highly effective in schizophrenic patients who are unresponsive to conventional neuroleptic agents. The long-term outcome of clozapine treatment was studied in 122 patients who were treated between 1974 and 1991. The mean duration of treatment was 5.2 years. At follow-up, 74 patients (61%) were still receiving clozapine. Only 11 patients discontinued treatment because of adverse events and eight because of poor compliance. Clinical improvement was seen in 87% of patients; 40% had resumed employment after 2 years' treatment. About one-third of patients who received clozapine for 5–10 years continued to improve during this time; this was probably because of a continuing process of socialisation. Thus, clozapine offers important advantages in schizophrenic patients resistant to conventional neuroleptics in terms of long-term efficacy and lack of extrapyramidal side-effects.

Major depression is one of the medical disorders in which quality of life instruments have most often been applied. It is important to distinguish between disease-dependent scales (ie, scales measuring the symptoms of major depression, such as the Beck Depression Inventory) and generic scales (ie, scales measuring self-reported states without reference to a specific disorder, such as the WHO well-being scale). The empirical use of generic scales for quality of life major depression has indicated that they can predict relapse and compliance. In the future, more trials comparing the different treatments with cost-effectiveness vs quality of life in major depression are required.