The information to be obtained from thorough life-history studies is an extremely useful tool, perhaps especially so when ecology is being emphasized, as it is to-day, by the life-table and other mathematical approaches to the study of population processes. This information is desired by workers in many fields of entomology – by the biological and chemical control experts, the biomathematicians, the theorists and even the taxonomists. However, much of the knowledge that these workers require, for instance the fine distinctions of behaviour and environment, has been overlooked in most life-history studies, and I strongly suspect that one of the weaknesses of studies of this nature has been the failure to analyse the mode of living of an insect (or, in the case of Lepidoptera, of the immature forms) in relation to the anatomy on one hand and environmental circumstances on the other. To look for these relationships, I believe that one requires (a) the ability and perseverance to perceive detail as minute as that required for a taxonomic study, and (b) a considerable knowledge of the taxonomic detail that is to be obtained from basic morphological studies. Therefore, in this paper, attention is drawn to pertinent structural characters of lepidopterous larvae and their probable connection with the behaviour and microhabitats of the larvae, in the hope that some guidance may be offered to future students of life-histories, at least in Lepidoptera.

In 1955 and 1956, while sampling corn stalks for larvae of the European corn borer in experimental plots at St. Jean, the author noted 23 adults of Coleomegilla maculata lengi Timb. and two adults of Coccinella novemnotata Hbst. that were parasitized and attached to the upper surfaces of corn leaves. Each beetle was astride a freshly formed cocoon and was held by a network of silk; many were alive when found. The parasite cocoons and the hosts were placed in closed petri dishesfor observation. The parasites that emerged were identified by Dr. W. R. M. Mason, Entomology Division, Ottawa,as Perilitus coccinellae (Schrank) (= Dinocampus terminatus (Nees).

Five species of Aphthona [A. cyparissiae (Koch), A. czwalinae (Weise), A. flava Guillebeau, A. lacertosa (Rosenhauer), and A. nigriscutis Foudras] were introduced into Canada for the biocontrol of spurge. Four identification keys are provided to determine these species: a field key based on the coloration of the body and appendages, a key for males using characters of the aedeagi, and two keys for females, the first based on features of the spermathecae, the second based on those of the styli.

In laboratory tests, Ravinia lherminieri (Robineau-Desvoidy) larvae significantly reduced the numbers of face fly, Musca autumnalis De Geer, eggs or larvae (98% mortality), in 100 ml of bovine feces at R. lherminieri to face fly ratios down to 10:200. Face fly immature mortality due to R. lherminieri decreased from 98% to 0% as the volume of feces per larva increased from 10 ml to 80 ml. Although R. lherminieri larvae survived on feces alone, their survival increased 26% (63% vs. 89%) when face fly immatures were added to the feces.

An undescribed microsporidium was isolated from a grasshopper species, Aulocara elliotti Thomas, in Platte County, Wyoming. A subsequent survey of grasshoppers revealed infections of the microsporidium in the other predominant grasshopper species, Psoloessa delicatula (Scudder). In a generation cycle, P. delicatula hatch in mid-summer, overwinter as late-instar nymphs, and become adults and oviposit in late spring, whereas A. elliotti diapause as eggs during winter, hatch in late spring, become adults and oviposit in early to mid-summer. The purpose of the present investigation is to report on the comparative incidence and transmission of the parasite in A. elliotti and P. delicatula.

Morphological, life history, and distributional data are presented for North American species of the genus Chelomideopsis Romijn. Chelomideopsis brunsoni (Cook) and C. besselingi (Cook) are redescribed on the basis of larvae, deutonymphs, and adults. Larvae and female adults of C. brunsoni, and deutonymphs of both of these species, are described for the first time. The mite described by Cook (1955) as the allotype female of C. brunsoni is correctly identified as a female of Platyhydracarus juliani Smith (1989). Four new species are described as follows: C. occidentalis sp.nov. (deutonymphs and adults), C. siskiyouensis sp.nov. (adults), C. minuta sp.nov. (female adults), and C. gledhilli sp.nov. (adults). A new diagnosis is proposed for Chelomideopsis based on knowledge of all active instars. New hypotheses on the phylogeny of species of the genus are presented, permitting the first assessment of zoogeography in this group of mites. The genus probably originated in Laurasia during the late Cretaceous or early Tertiary, and diversified and became widely dispersed in North America and Eurasia during the Tertiary. Mites of the genus apparently were adapted for the temperate climate that persisted until late Tertiary times, and were displaced to southern refugial areas by habitat destruction and climatic cooling associated with episodes of Pleistocene glaciation. The various species are now beginning to reinvade recently deglaciated areas from their Wisconsinan refugia, as they and their host chironomids colonize suitable spring and small stream habitats.

Trypoxylon (Trypargilum) tridentatum tridentatum Packard (Hymenoptera: Crabronidae) is a spider-hunting wasp in mesic and xeric habitats in the arid Baja California peninsula of Mexico. Spider (Araneae) prey were collected every 2 weeks from wasp trap nests. Individuals of the family Araneidae were the most abundant prey (60.9%), followed by Theridiidae and Mimetidae. Dictynidae, Anyphaenidae, Salticidae, Uloboridae, Tetragnathidae, Miturgidae, and Philodromidae were captured only in the mesic habitat. An unidentified species of Eriophora Simon (Araneidae) was the most frequently collected spider in the xeric habitat (29.0%), followed by Theridion submissum Gertsch and Davis (Theridiidae) (24.0%), which was the commonest prey species in the mesic habitat (21.1%), and Metepeira crassipes Chamberlin and Ivie (Araneidae) (16.5%). Nineteen species and three families are newly recorded as prey. The araneids Araneus lineatipes (O.P.-Cambridge) and Kaira alba (Hentz) and the uloborids Philoponella arizonica (Gertsch) and Uloborus segregatus Gertsch are new records for Baja California.

This list is presented as a slight contribution to our knowledge of the geographical distribution of the North American Hemiptera. As our literature of this order is by no means overburdened with faunal lists, I trust that the present will find sufficient excuse for its appearance in the mater it contains. I have made every effort to have the list as accurate and complete as possible, under the circumstances. The material was accumulated during brief collecting tour in the Muskoka Lake District of Canada, in the interval from July 25th of August 3rd, 1888.

In population studies of the pine leaf adelgid, sampling techniques are required. Procedures for sampling galls on spruce and for associated adelgid stages are described. Gall distributions both within trees and between trees are non-random, following the negative-binomial series. Aggregation within trees arises from a disproportionate number of galls occurring on the upper crown branches. Between trees, gall populations are more dense on the larger trees, and red spruce is more heavily infested where red spruce and black spruce are mixed. The proposed sampling unit is composed of one branch from each of the upper two vertical crown quarters, and one longitudinally halved branch from each of the lower crown quarters. The examination of sample units from 50 trees will provide a reliable estimate of stand populations except where low gall densities or heterogeneous spruce stands make a larger sample mandatory. Additional details of sampling and the biological significance of the findings are discussed.

Studies have been undertaken with artificial food sprays in an attempt to increase the efficacy of predators against pests of corn (Schiefelbein and Chiang 1966; Carlson and Chiang 1973), alfalfa and cotton (Hagen et al. 1970), peppers (Hagen and Hale 1974), and potatoes (Ben Saad and Bishop 1976). It was believed that such sprays might attract predators into the crop ecosystem and keep them there particularly during periods when natural foods were in poor supply. Also, the availability of sufficient alternative food might induce these species to lay eggs even when natural host populations were low.

Seven species of parasitoids and two species of moths emerged from bud galls induced by two species of gall midges (Asteralobiasoyogo (Kikuti) and A. sasakii (Monzen)) (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) on four species of trees of the genus Ilex (I. pedunculosa Miq., I. crenata Thunb., I. chinensis Sims, and I. integra Thunb.) (Aquifoliaceae). Larvae of the moth Rhopobota ustomaculana (Curtis) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) bored into bud galls induced by A. soyogo and A. sasakii on I. pedunculosa and I. crenata, respectively. Rhopobota ustomaculana larvae fed on leaves as well as gall tissues of I. pedunculosa, suggesting that R. ustomaculana is a facultative cecidophage. To clarify consequences of gall tissues as a food resource for cecidophagous moths, we compared the chemical properties of galls with those of normal plant tissues (leaves) of I. pedunculosa. Bud galls of I. pedunculosa had higher water content and lower nitrogen, carbon, and polyphenol (a chemical associated with plant insect defenses) contents than leaves. Therefore, bud galls may be a richer food resource for R. ustomaculana larvae because of the higher water content and lower carbon and polyphenol contents, although they are a poorer resource in terms of nitrogen content.

The abdomen of female Pelecinus is uniquely and extremely modified for digging in soil. Segments 2–7 are connected by sternite to sternite articulations allowing vertical movement produced by anteriorly placed muscles acting through long tendons inserting on the adjacent succeeding segment. Segments 3–6 have, in addition to the linkage allowing vertical movement, a detached, posterior section of the sternite that can rotate on a median ventral flexible attachment to the tergal margins. This linkage allows the posterior section of a sternite together with the succeeding segments to rotate through about 135 °relative to its tergite. Tergite 8 bears large spiracles completely covered by sternite 7. The ovipositor lacks the usual 3rd linkage between gonocoxite 9 and gonapophysis 9, allowing the depressor muscle of the gonapophysis to extrude the ovipositor directly backwards.

A survey of the sucking insect fauna of the birches has been conducted in the Maritime Provinces, and a check-list of 75 species of Homoptera and Hemiptera, with tabulated data on host relationships, is presented. The bulk of the population on any of the three birches (Betula alleghaniensis Britt., B. papyrifera Marsh., and B. populifolia Marsh.) has three major components: the Oncopsis leafhoppers, Psylla striata Patch, and the phyllaphidine aphids. The many other species present occur at much lower density but often have a broader dependence upon other hosts. The main homopterous families and their relationships to birch and the forest communities are discussed.

Chemoreception is a key process for insects. Odorant messages diffuse through the air and are translated into physiological signals by chemosensory receptor neurons in sensilla that are mainly located on insect antennae. We sequenced the antenna transcriptome of Rhyzopertha dominica (Fabricius) (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae), which is a serious pest of stored grains throughout regions with warm climates, and performed transcriptome analysis on R. dominica antennae. We obtained 57 million 90-base pair-long reads that we assembled into 37 877 unigenes with a mean size of 1007 base pairs. Predicted protein sequences were matched with Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) (79.1%), Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) (1.7%), Megachile rotundata (Fabricius) (Hymenoptera: Megachilidae) (1.3%), Acyrthosiphon pisum Harris (Hemiptera: Aphididae) (1.2%), and other (16.7%) homologues. In chemosensory gene families, we identified transcripts that encoded the following putative genes: 12 odorant-binding proteins (OBPs), four pheromone-binding proteins (PBPs), eight chemosensory proteins (CSPs), five sensory neuron membrane proteins (SNMPs), six odorant receptors, and eight ionotropic receptors. The diversity of the predicted OBPs, PBPs, and CSPs are also discussed. These findings will advance our understanding of olfaction process by this pest.

Spodoptera littoralis (Boisduval) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) is one of the most destructive agricultural pests. We investigated the cumulative lethal effects of two nanostructure materials by feeding nanostructural form of copper oxide (CuO) or copper oxide doped with silver (CuO:Ag), nanosheets-treated diet to third and/or fifth instars of S. littoralis until pupation. Nanosheet concentrations were individually incorporated into 150 mL of artificial diet and offered as treated food. Both nanosheets had no immediate effect but caused cumulative larval mortality. At high concentrations and longer exposure times, nanosheet had a significant insecticidal effect against S. littoralis larvae. Nanosheets at 300 mg had the highest insect mortality effect, reaching 97.6% and 100% among CuO-treated third and fifth instars compared with 57.6% and 48.2% among the same instar treated with CuO:Ag. Treated larvae exhibited higher pupal mortality, and pupal and moth deformities compared with untreated larvae. There were more deformities among those fed CuO:Ag. Incorporation of nanosheets into the diet had a significant effect on the timing of larval development. Results showed that CuO was more influential than CuO:Ag at all concentrations and with similar exposure durations. Our results suggest that nanosheets may have important implications on the population dynamics of S. littoralis.

The spruce budworm, Choristoneura fumiferana (Clem.), nuclear polyhedrosis virus (CfMNPV) has been studied extensively for its potential use as a bio-insecticide (Cunningham 1995). Recent advances in recombinant DNA technology have been impetuous in the genetic engineering of this virus to increase its virulence and (or) speed of action. This aspect of research has been concentrated on the modification of a plaque purified (Ireland strain) isolate obtained from the wild-type virus population (Arif et al. 1984). To assess any improvement in the effectiveness against the target pest, the virulence of the unaltered virus must first be determined. Bioassay results that have been previously reported by Kaupp and Ebling (1990) were conducted on the wild-type virus found in nature which consists of a mixture of viruses (Arif et al. 1994). Results of bioassays conducted to determine dose–response and time–response of fifth-instar spruce budworm larvae to the Ireland strain of CfMNPV are reported here.

Secondary metabolites from plants capable of photosensitizing insects include furanocoumarins, furanoquinone alkaloids, beta-carboline alkaloids, polyacetylenes and their thiophene derivatives, and extended quinones (Arnason et al. 1983; Towers 1984). These compounds may have direct lethal effects, retard larval development, or be ovicidal (Kagan and Chan 1983). A remarkable property of these secondary metabolites is their greatly enhanced activity in the presence of sunlight or artificial sources of radiation.

The majority (about 94%) of birch casebearer larvae, Coleophora fuscedinella Zeller, abandon the leaves in the fall and attach their case to the bark surface at spurs, at the base of buds, and at twig crotches. Casebearer populations were studied in six white birch, Betula papyrifera Marsh., stands of 3 m to 6 m in height. An average of 50% of overwintering population of the birch casebearer occurred within 50 cm of the crown periphery of the middle half of the crown. This proportion was the same at the three population densities studied: 2,000, 10,000, and 20,000 cases per tree. Intra-tree distribution differed significantly between stands and between years and was modified when there were more than 3,000 larvae in a tree. However, the relation between log10 (cases + 1) at midcrown and the whole tree was consistent and usually explained more than 85% of the variance. For all population densities, the number of casebearers in the tree could be estimated from a sample of the crown. To preserve the form and aesthetic value of trees, the sample should comprise spurs or crotches and not a crown sector as used in this study.

Mating studies with M. sanguinipes (Fabr.) indicated that egg hatchability and percentage of males among the hatchlings decreased as copulatory period decreased; this was probably caused by depletion of viable sperm in the female resulting from inadequate sexual contact with the male.

The effect of trap color on sticky-trap catches of Pholetesor ornigis Weed was studied in experimental and commercial apple orchards during each of the parasite's 3 yearly activity periods during 1982–1984. Seven enamel and 5 fluorescent paints were compared in 8 trials. There was considerable between-trial variation in the percentage of the total number of P. ornigis caught on a trap of one color. Trap color had a significant effect on the total number of parasites caught. There were no consistent differences in the relative attractiveness of the different colors to males and females. During 1984, males comprised more than 75% of all parasites trapped during each of the 3 activity periods. The sex ratio of the adult population emerging in study orchards during 2 of these activity periods was approximately 1:1.