This book presents a long, multifaceted argument for pursuing universal biology in the face of (in William James’s colorful words) the “blooming buzzing confusion” offered by familiar Earth life to researchers. As Chapter 5 discusses, the central challenge for the program of universal biology is that familiar Earth life – the only form of life of which we can be certain – represents a single example and there are positive reasons for worrying that this example is unrepresentative of life. Biologists have discovered that life as we know it on Earth descends from a last universal common ancestor, and hence represents a single example. Moreover, biochemists have established that life elsewhere could differ from familiar life in certain ways at the molecular and biochemical levels, and they do not know how different it could be from familiar Earth life. Finally, as Chapter 6 explains, contemporary biological theorizing about life is founded upon what we now know is an unrepresentative form of familiar Earth life, namely, highly specialized, latecomers to our planet (complex multicellular eukaryotes). Indeed, a central theme of this book (Chapter 1) is that much of contemporary biological thought is still implicitly wedded to a defective, neo-Aristotelean, theoretical framework for life based on animals and plants.

As discussed in Chapter 1, Aristotle divided all life into two taxonomic categories, plant and animal, a view that, as Section 5.3.2 recounts, dominated biology until less than two hundred years ago. When one considers that Aristotle’s observations were limited to what could be seen by means of unaided human vision, namely, plants, animals, and certain fungi, for example, mushrooms (which he classified as plants), this is hardly surprising. In the seventeenth century, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, who first observed and described them under a microscope of his own devising, classified microorganisms as tiny animals (“animalcules”). It was not until the mid-nineteenth century that unicellular organisms were placed in their own (a third) taxonomic category, Protista, by Ernst Haeckel. What is surprising is how long Aristotle’s classification system survived in the face of mounting empirical evidence that unicellular organisms defy classification as plant or animal.

Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the outermost of the rocky, terrestrial planets that make up the inner solar system. Mars is the second smallest planet; only Mercury is smaller. Surface gravity on Mars is 3.71 m s–2, which is 37.6% that of the Earth. The present atmospheric pressure is low (~0.6 kPa) relative to Earth’s (101 kPa), and the atmosphere is mostly carbon dioxide (95%). The obliquity of Mars (tilt of the axis of rotation relative to the plane of orbit) is presently 25 degrees and may have varied by tens of degrees over the past tens of millions of years and longer (Laskar et al., 2004).

The rugged highland terrains of Noachis Terra and Terra Sabaea dominate the region. The higher-standing, tectonically deformed, and densely cratered Terra Sabaea contains Scylla and Charybdis Scopuli. Also present are Denning, Bouguer, Lambert, Dawes, Pollack, Schiaparelli, Tuscaloosa, and Bakhuysen craters. To the west, the relatively subdued, but still rugged highland region of Noachis Terra has Newcomb, Wislicenus, and Mädler craters; and Marikh and a portion of Evros Valles. Numerous other moderately to highly degraded craters are scattered throughout the area. Valley networks ranging from tens of kilometers to thousands of kilometers in length dissect much of the topography. Wide grabens scar parts of Terra Sabaea. The region slopes from close to 3,000 m above datum in Terra Sabaea to as low at –1,500 m in the northwest. The northeast region is a portion of the zone that occurs between highland terrains to the south and transition terrain of Arabia Terra to the north (MC-12).

Eridania quadrangle is composed almost entirely of the ancient cratered highland terrain of Terra Cimmeria, at 0–2 km elevation. The largest crater, Kepler, is about 230 km in diameter. Less-cratered, relatively low-lying plains are scattered throughout the quadrangle, including Eridania Planitia in the northwest corner and Planum Chronium in the southwest part of the quadrangle. Ridge systems occur throughout the quadrangle, with northeast-trending Eridania Scopulus forming the most prominent ridge.

The Iapygia quadrangle consists almost entirely of heavily cratered highlands, as high as 3 km above datum, descending to the northern basin rim (0–3 km below datum) and floor (3 to over 5 km below datum) of Hellas, and a piece of the southwestern rim of Isidis basin. Terra Sabaea makes up the western two-thirds of the quadrangle, whereas Tyrrhena Terra makes up the third that is east of a topographic divide, at ~75° E. An arcuate, north-facing series of scarps, Oenotria Scopuli, crosses this divide and appears to be concentric to Isidis basin. Huygens forms a prominent impact basin, with an outer rim of ~470 km in diameter, and it has an inner (250-km-diameter) and partial intermediate (350-km) ring.

The global landscape of Mars is diverse, and this diversity tells a story of its surface history. Geographic regions and zones, each unique in character, are dominated by specific landforms and materials. These in turn express processes and histories, including geologic and climate-driven activity. Understanding the major geographic regions of Mars, as on Earth, then, is essential to unraveling the factors involved in global and regional geologic activity. It also provides context for study of local areas and individual features or sets of features. In addition, some of the major regions of Mars are indicative of heterogeneities in the crust and mantle (see Chapter 5).

Ismenius Lacus is located in the northern mid-latitudes of the eastern hemisphere of Mars. It includes sections of both the southern highlands and northern plains. The topographic transition is defined by gently sloping surfaces, steep scarps, linear to sinuous channels, and isolated knobs and plateaus. The southern part of the quadrangle is defined by the northernmost extent of the high-standing, ancient cratered highlands of Arabia Terra and Terra Sabaea, at elevations near datum to –3,000 m. The regional highlands in Ismenius Lacus contain large, ancient channel systems – Okavango and Mamers Valles (Figure 5.A; Mangold and Howard, 2013) – as well as networks of linear depressions – Ismeniae and Coloe Fossae. These physiographic features all record complex geologic processes that are associated with the long-term break-up and marginal erosion of the cratered highlands. From the north to the south, the highland–lowland transition in Ismenius Lacus is marked by the high-standing plateaus of Deuteronilus and Protonilus Mensae as well as the irregularly-shaped depressions of Deuteronilus Colles and Colles Nili. The lowlands in the north typically lie at –4,000 m or lower. The 236-km-diameter Lyot crater and its radial and lobate ejecta blanket dominate the center of the quadrangle.

The Argyre basin spans the west half of the quadrangle, while part of Noachis Terra, at 0–2 km elevation, lies to the east. Argyre, as deep as –3 km elevation, is the best preserved of the largest multi-ringed impact basins on Mars, and is comparable in size to the Orientale basin of the Moon. The size and number of rings in the basin, which are generally expressed by discontinuous, concentric ridges and basin-facing scarps, are debated (three to seven rings or more), owing to later modification. The most common diameter assigned to a prominent, inner ring is 800–900 km, while the entire structure may be 1800 km or more across. Valleys drain toward Argyre from the south and east, while large channels may connect Argyre to the Uzboi–Ladon–Morava (see MC-19) system to the north. Drainage into the northwestern flank of the basin from surrounding plains is blocked by concentric, broad ridges. The hummocky floor of Argyre is 3–4 km below the average terrain elevation beyond the rim (Hiesinger and Head, 2002) and includes a variety of landforms. Noachis Terra is typical of the southern cratered highlands of Mars and gives its name to the oldest period of geologic time on Mars (MC-27).

The Phaethontis quadrangle is dominated by the cratered highlands of Terra Sirenum, which display prominent, marginal basins and tectonic structures, reaching thousands of kilometers in length. Except for the interiors of larger craters, elevations are generally 1–3 km above datum. Tharsis lava-flow materials inundate and partially cover the rugged, ancient terrain in the northeast corner of the quadrangle. Some of the structural basins in the northwestern part of the quadrangle display disrupted floors, referred to as chaotic terrain, most notably Atlantis Chaos and Gorgonum Chaos. The segmented, narrow graben systems of Sirenum Fossae and Icaria Fossae extend southwestward from the Tharsis rise, northeast of the quadrangle, cutting both ancient cratered highland materials and some of the older Tharsis lava flows.