Chapter 2 identifies various types of sound-related words in order to define the scope of onomatopoeia and the place of onomatopoeia in the system of language. It argues in favour of its ‘narrow’ definition by reserving this notion exclusively for direct sound imitation to distinguish onomatopoeia from signs based on cross-modal iconicity, from interjections, and from onomatopoeia-based derivatives and semantic shifts. This chapter also illustrates the different status and functions of onomatopoeic words in the sample languages.

Chapter 3 concentrates on the semiotics of onomatopoeia, mainly the frequently discussed issues of iconicity, arbitrariness, and motivation. It is claimed that rather than opposing terms, arbitrariness and motivation are complementary notions. It introduces the concept of causality into the discussion of the nature of onomatopoeia as linguistic signs. The chapter discusses five basic oppositions: causality versus noncausality; arbitrariness versus nonarbitrariness; iconicity versus non-iconicity; motivation versus lexicalization; and conventionalization versus nonconventionalization. Considerable attention is paid to the views that criticize Saussure’s comprehension of onomatopoeia and his concept of arbitrariness. Arguments are presented in support of Saussure’s position. In addition, Peirce’s triad of hypo-icons (image, diagram, metaphor) is discussed in terms of their relevance to the characterization of onomatopoeias.

For languages that recognize ideophones, it is quite common to discuss onomatopoeia under the umbrella of ideophones, that is, words based on our sensory perception: hearing, seeing, touching, smelling, tasting, and psychological feeling. This chapter examines the similarities and differences between onomatopoeia conceived as causally determined direct sound imitations and cross-modal ideophones to evaluate whether the ‘all-sensory’ approach is justified or whether onomatopoeia represents – from a cross-linguistic point of view – a class of words of their own. While similarities and shared features exist between onomatopoeias and other sensory signs, the available literature offers numerous indications of a different status of ideophones and onomatopoeia. Some of the reasons are of universal nature, and others are language specific. This chapter starts with an overview of the characteristic features of ideophones. Its structure maps the individual points of onomatopoeia description presented in Chapter 3 (semiotic characteristics), Chapter 4 (phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic, word-formation, and sociopragmatic characteristics), and Chapter 6 (cross-linguistic similarities), as well as the word-class and open-class criteria. This is followed by a comparison of ideophones as cross-modal sensory words with onomatopoeia as monomodal sensory words. The final sections look at their universal and language-specific similarities and differences.

The final chapter provides a brief summary of the achievements, identifies limitations of the presented research, and indicates the directions of future onomatopoeia exploration.

This chapter examines the extent of similarities between onomatopoeias representing identical or similar sound events. Since onomatopoeias are causally determined iconic images and indexes, one might expect a high degree of cross-linguistic similarity. As Akita and Imai (2022: 29) note in their model of an iconicity ring, onomatopoeias as instances of primary iconicity are characterized by early acquisition and, importantly, universality. Another factor that should contribute to the cross-linguistic similarity of onomatopoeic words is the phenomenon of sound symbolism, in particular, the existence of universal phonesthemes. Nevertheless, Chapter 6 identifies a range of factors affecting the level of cross-linguistic similarity, including psycholinguistic, sociolinguistic, language-inherent factors as well as those related to the imitated sound event. This chapter identifies onomatopoeic patterns for eighteen sound events based on the sample data. The criteria include the number and the structure of the syllables, the type of the onset, nucleus, and coda, presence/absence of iconic reduplication, and vowel/consonant lengthening. An analysis of these patterns makes it possible to draw typological generalizations.

The idea of sound symbolism as “an inmost, natural similarity association between sound and meaning” (Jakobson and Waugh 2002: 182) in onomatopoeia and, more broadly, in ideophones has a long tradition. This chapter maps different views of the role of sound symbolism in onomatopoeia and provides an overview of phonesthemes as manifested in onomatopoeias in the examined sample of the world’s languages. The objective is (i) to identify cross-linguistic similarities in the use of phonesthemes to arrive at a universally system applicable to onomatopoeia and (ii) to identify language-specific phonesthemes. Based on these findings, the classical onomasiological model of word-formation is modified to show the actual role of phonesthemes in onomatopoeia-formation. The results contribute to the discussion on the significance and extent of sound symbolism in onomatopoeia.

This chapter introduces the field and the scope of research and the fundamental terminology. The basic objective of this monograph is primary onomatopoeia defined as imagic icons of the signified objects; prototypically, they are underived and uninflected monemes. The Introduction maps the state of the art in onomatopoeia research, mainly based on a questionnaire-based survey among language experts covering 124 languages of the world. It accounts for the method of language sampling. Since data collection can be significantly affected by the status of the sample languages, this section also provides their classification according to the Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale. This chapter also provides an overview of resources available for research in this field with a focus on the availability of dictionaries and corpora that identify the class of onomatopoeia. Significant attention is given to the categorization of sounds, an aspect often overlooked in onomatopoeia studies. This categorization is crucial for mapping the sound sources and sound events that onomatopoeias represent across the sampled languages.

This chapter provides a detailed analysis of the occurrence of onomatopoeias in the sample languages with the aim of answering the question of the extent to which selected sound types are represented by onomatopoeias in the world’s languages. The point of departure is the categorization of sounds presented in the Introduction, which distinguishes sixteen sound types. First, the situation in macro-areas is mapped. Then, the data are analyzed by individual sound types and sound sources. Furthermore, the chapter seeks an answer to the question if there is a correlation between a language’s status on the Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale and the identified richness in onomatopoeia.