This chapter investigates how belonging is constructed through language in Belize. Inspecting linguistic landscapes, interviews, and ethnographic observations, the study reveals the sometimes paradoxical ways languages are ideologically positioned within local, national and transnational contexts. Kriol is central to constructing national belonging and serves as a unifying symbol of a diverse population. It is also tied to racial and transnational belonging, connecting to Afro-Caribbean cultural spaces. Conversely, Spanish is associated with immigration and Guatemala, despite its historical presence and ongoing use. This tension results in contradictory discourses, where Spanish is simultaneously seen as ‘foreign’ and as a home language. English occupies a dual role as both a foreign and national language. While it indexes Belize’s colonial ties and distinguishes Belizeans from their Hispanic neighbours, it is also regarded as essential for education and economic mobility. The chapter concludes that language ideologies and practices do not always align, reflecting the coexistence of diverse historical, social, and political discourses in shaping linguistic belonging in Belize.

The fragility of heritage languages (HL) and the challenges immigrant minority learners had in maintaining their home linguistic and cultural assets have been long detected in existing research, calling for more attention toward immigrants’ HL maintenance and education in non-HL-speaking societies. To respond to the call and better understand the status quo of HL preservation, the chapter provides an overview of research developments, pedagogical innovations, and persistent issues salient to heritage language education for K-12 students from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds in both mainstream school settings and out-of-school contexts during the previous decade (2012–2022). The chapter highlights several critical factors that contribute to the prevalent heritage language loss including the ‘officially unilingual’ ideology, the absence of heritage/home languages and cultures in the mainstream curriculum, and the lack of collaboration between mainstream and HL schools and families. The chapter concludes with future directions for researchers, policymakers, and practitioners devoted to HL education and preservation.

Despite the fact that bilingual instruction in the United States of America pre-dates its nationhood, educational policy has undulated its allowance and support for dual language education, marked by both selective preferential treatment of certain (primarily European) languages and through broad opposition to the endeavour as a whole. This brief review of the history and scholarship of dual language education in the USA recaps the ebbs and flows of bilingual education over time and the accompanying shifts in discourses about the purposes and benefits of bilingual education with subsequent implications for how bilingual education is implemented.

Within the timespan of one decade, there have been numerous publications on the viability and educational benefits of translanguaging. In this chapter, I will focus on two publications (Block, 2018 and Jaspers, 2018) that appear to offer conflicting arguments about the shortcomings and perils of pursuing the agenda proposed by translanguaging. That is, whereas Jaspers argues that its ‘transformative’ claim ‘is becoming a dominating rather than a liberating force’, Block argues that the ‘transformative’ agenda advanced by researchers and practitioners of translanguaging does not go far enough to address the systematic and damaging effects of social injustice.

This chapter introduces the study of language ideologies and the relationship between language, social belonging, and social order, particularly in the context of late modernity. It approaches linguistic categories as discursively constructed rather than naturally occurring. This frames language as a key lens for understanding human social organisation, emphasising that ideas about language reflect and co-construct broader social and political ideologies. Through a discussion of sociolinguistic and linguistic anthropological theories, the chapter critiques essentialist views of language. It introduces concepts such as social indexicality, standard language, prestige, and centring institutions to explore how language acquires social meaning and status. The chapter also examines the material dimensions of language, including the role of writing, sound, and tangible artefacts such as grammars and dictionaries in shaping linguistic ideologies and language categories. It lays the foundations for understanding languages as dynamic, constructed phenomena embedded in specific historical, cultural, and material contexts.

This chapter advocates the translanguaging approach to language education where all languages are valued, and all knowledge that has been acquired through different languages and in different cultural conditions is valued. Translanguaging sees language learning as cultural translation. Learning a new language is about learning a different way of making meaning as well as achieving an understanding of the world around us with people from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds. This requires co-learners’ willingness to to adapt and unlearn, to trust and respect each other, and to support each other on a journey of transpositioning.

This chapter focuses on the broader historical, social, and political context of Belize, which is shaped by colonial history, transnational connections, and multilingual practices. Belize’s linguistic composition reflects its complex history, with English as the official language, Kriol as a marker of national identity, and Spanish as both a widespread and contested language. The historical prominence of Afro-European Creoles and the national fear of Guatemalan territorial claims have added to the prestige of anglophone languages. In addition, Belize’s sociolinguistic diversity incorporates indigenous languages, global influences, and a dynamic interaction between English, Kriol, and Spanish. The studied village, initially settled by Spanish speakers, has evolved into a ‘superdiverse’ community due to tourism, migration, and global economic integration. The chapter explores spatial and social stratification within the village, where language use reflects not only ethnicity and class but also local and transnational affiliations. The chapter illustrates the fluidity of linguistic and social boundaries, challenging Eurocentric assumptions about diversity and belonging.

Since Herdina & Jessner (2002) published the Dynamic Model of Multilingualism(DMM), applying dynamic systems theory to language development research, interestin multilingual development and multilingual awareness has been growing. Thepresent contribution discusses DMM concepts, e.g., complexity and interdependenceof levels and factors, with a special emphasis on multilingual awareness as a keycomponent of multilingual learning. These concepts are then linked to DMM-basedlanguage learning and teaching approaches that focus on language management,language maintenance, and the training of multilingual awareness. Finally, someselected multilingual/plurilingual teaching practices that apply DMM in combinationwith other holistic approaches are presented.

This chapter focuses on the development of trilingual education in the Basque Country where Basque, a minority language, is used along with other languages. Nowadays, Basque is the main language of instruction in pre-primary, primary, and secondary school. Education through the medium of Basque has had an enormous effect on increasing the number of Basque speakers among young people. The increasing importance of English and the diversity of home languages in a multilingual society create the need for changes in language policy and teaching approaches. In this chapter, recent trends to integrate language subjects in the curriculum, the integration of language and content and pedagogical translanguaging are alsodiscussed.

This chapter examines language ideologies in the context of creole linguistics and in the Caribbean. Creole linguistics offers critical insights into how languages are socially constructed. Traditional debates in creole linguistics have often framed creoles as ‘simpler’ or structurally distinct from other languages, reflecting Western biases. Other approaches challenge these views and underline the fluidity and variability of creole languages. In the second part, the chapter examines language attitudes and ideologies in creole-speaking societies, focusing on the Caribbean in general and Belize. Creole languages function as symbols of solidarity and belonging. In Belize, the rise of Kriol’s prestige reflects national identity and cultural independence, and intersects with English, Spanish, and indigenous languages. This requires frameworks that account for the polycentric, complex sociolinguistic realities of creole-speaking societies. The chapter establishes Belize as a compelling site to explore how languages are discursively constructed, and shows how academic and lay perspectives influence this construction.

Despite the large number of languages spoken in New Zealand, the country does not have a unified national languages policy. Instead, a wide range of separate policies regulate the status and institutionalisation of different languages, which largely depends on which language communities are acknowledged and supported by the government. This chapter provides an overview of such policies that highlights the historical, political, and ideological complexities and disparities in current provisions to support NZ’s official languages (te reo Māori and NZSL), Pasifika languages, and other community-based heritage languages. We conclude with some remarks on the ongoing need for a comprehensive national legislative framework to enable recognition and educational support for all of NZ’s heritage languages.