In cross-linguistic word learning, learning new knowledge based on existing knowledge is a common and lifelong process. This study investigated whether inhibitory control would be conducive to this process. We asked Chinese-English bilinguals to learn new meanings for familiar English ambiguous words within two consecutive days, manipulating semantic relatedness and word frequency to create four categories: high-frequency-unrelated, high-frequency-related, low-frequency-unrelated and low-frequency-related ambiguous words. Participants completed translation recognition and production tests immediately after learning and again one week later, with flanker and stop-signal tasks interspersed to measure their interference inhibition and response inhibition. The results indicated that inhibitory control, particularly interference inhibition, significantly aided in learning new meanings when direct knowledge transfer from existing knowledge was unfeasible. This research enhances our comprehension of individual differences in word learning, offering valuable perspectives for broader theories of word learning and targeted educational interventions.

An important question in literacy education is whether reading instruction should focus on whole words or subword constituents. We tested whether this question captures something general across writing systems by examining the functionalities of words and characters in learning Chinese. We introduce a character-word dual-focus instructional approach based on the Character-Word Dual Function model and test its predictions with American undergraduate students enrolled in a beginner-level Chinese course. One group learned new words through dual-focus instruction: characters for pronunciation and words for meaning. A second group followed typical word-focus instruction prevalent in classrooms, learning word-level pronunciation and meaning. Results indicated that while both approaches produced comparable levels of word pronunciation and meaning learning, the dual-focus instruction significantly enhanced character pronunciation and transfer to new word learning. The advantages of dual-focus instruction highlight the importance of learning the subword components through acquiring the systematic structure of the writing system in learning to read.

This review investigates the complex dynamics of code-switching (CS), the spontaneous alternation between languages within a conversation, particularly its implications for cognitive processes like executive functions (EFs). Analysing post-2015 studies, it critically assesses 23 experiments. Through stringent criteria and comprehensive search strategies, the review identifies factors influencing CS types and their impact on cognition, highlighting methodological inconsistencies and confounds. It highlights the evolving perspectives on CS, ranging from pragmatic approaches emphasizing communicative functions to structural analyses focusing on linguistic constraints. It underscores the importance of considering factors such as language competence, typological proximity and cognitive processes in understanding CS behaviour. It emphasizes the need for precise CS typology assessment to understand the complex link between CS behaviour and cognitive functioning, bridging linguistic and cognitive domains. This review contributes to clarifying inconsistencies in CS research methodology and findings, aiming to elucidate the factors influencing CS types and their implications for cognition.

Language exposure and use (LEU) are widely viewed as key factors in multilingual development, and research highlights the importance of considering not just the frequency and quantity of LEU, but also contextual factors such as when and where a language is used, with whom and why. In this study, we illustrate the complexity of LEU in two contexts (study abroad and migration) by applying sequential mixture modelling to rich Experience Sampling Method data, considering combinations of various aspects of LEU such as language choice, type of activity, quantity, interlocutor characteristics and learner engagement. We argue that together, these methods for data collection and analysis have the potential to significantly strengthen research into LEU and broader language-related development. By uncovering distinct classes of language-related activities and language user profiles, we gain deeper insight into the nature of situated LEU and its relationship to language development among migrants and in study abroad.

This study longitudinally modeled home language exposure patterns of US Spanish–English bilingual children between the ages of 4 and 12. Participants were 280 Spanish–English bilinguals (95% Hispanic, 52% female) who were followed for up to 5 years using a cross-sequential longitudinal design. Multilevel linear regression models were used to estimate language exposure trajectories across four home language sources (adults, peers, electronic media and literacy activities) and three language modes (Spanish-only, English-only and bilingual). Results demonstrated that Spanish interactions with both adults and peers declined as children aged, while bilingual interactions showed a distinct increase over time. Conversely, media exposure and engagement in literacy activities increased over time, irrespective of the language used. Children’s age of first English exposure and current school English exposure also influenced language contact and use in the home. These findings approximate an 8-year exposure trajectory across a continuum of bilingual experiences.

We investigated the extent to which executive functions (EFs) are recruited in language switching in children in a cued picture-naming (CN) task. We expected to find associations between CN and EF tasks measuring inhibitory control and shifting. Another goal was to compare parent-reported children’s everyday language control ability at home with their switching ability in the CN task and EF performance. The participants were mostly 5–7-year-old Norwegian–Spanish and Finnish–Swedish-speaking children (N = 45). The analysis was preregistered. Unexpectedly, the primary accuracy analysis showed positive associations between CN switching costs and EF performance in only one of the EF tests, flanker, and CN mixing costs were predicted only by the color-shape switch costs. Children’s everyday language control ability did not show consistent significant associations with lab measures. Our study provides weak evidence for the view that EFs are engaged in language control when children have some years of bilingual experience.

In a cross-sectional study of L2 Danish, we examined the production of correct verb-second (V2) word order. We tested the effect of (1) the learners’ language background, (2) test level and (3) the length of the sentence constituents. The texts were written by 217 students (3 test levels (A2-B1), 52 different L1s). Interrogative clauses had high accuracy, but 25% of the 491 declarative sentences with non-initial subjects had incorrect V3 word order. Our study shows that V2 is not difficult for all learners. Learners whose L1 is a V2 language had a significantly higher share of correct V2 word order, and they never overused V2. For non-V2 learners, the share of correct V2 significantly increased with proficiency level. For constituent length, accuracy decreased significantly with the length of the first constituent and for subjects consisting of multiple words.

There is evidence to suggest that the effects of bilingualism on executive functions (EFs) need to be examined along a continuum rather than a dichotomy. The present study addressed this need by examining the influence of different bilingual experiences on executive functioning using a Flanker and Stroop mouse-tracking task that taps into more dynamic cognitive processes than typical behavioral paradigms. We sampled 98 bilingual young adults and investigated conflict and sequential congruency effects (SCEs). We found that mouse-tracking metrics captured links that were not identified with overall reaction times. SCEs were more sensitive to detecting relations between L2 experiences and EF than simple conflict effects. Second-language age of acquisition and L1/L2 switching frequency consistently predicted EF outcomes. This association was moderated by the attentional demands of the task. These findings highlight the complexity of the effects of bilingualism on cognition, and the use of more sensitive measures to capture these effects.

English as a second language (L2) has become the medium of instruction in numerous contexts even though many people may have difficulties to read and study in L2. According to the self-regulated framework, metacognitive strategies are essential to achieve successful learning, but they are resource-consuming and their use might be compromised in demanding contexts such as learning in L2. In Experiment 1, nonbalanced bilinguals read high- and low-cohesion texts in L1 and L2 and self-rated their learning using a judgment of learning (JOL). Then, they answered open-ended questions and responded a customized questionnaire regarding their strategies. In Experiment 2, we introduced two bilingual groups varying in L2 proficiency. Overall, participants could adjust their JOLs and detect the difficulty of the texts correctly in L1 and L2. However, results evidenced some nuances in learning strategies related to L2 proficiency. We discuss these findings within the context of the self-regulated learning.